Children's Literature A Textbook of Sources for Teachers and Teacher-Training Classes

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Title: Children's Literature

A Textbook of Sources for Teachers and Teacher-Training Classes

Author: Charles Madison Curry

Erle Elsworth Clippinger

Release Date: May 20, 2008 [EBook #25545]

Language: English

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When all the novelists and spinners of elaborate fictions have been read and judged, we shall find that the peasant and the nurse are still unsurpassed as mere narrators. They are the guardians of that treasury of legend which comes to us from the very childhood of nations; they and their tales are the abstract and brief chronicles, not of an age merely, but of the whole race of man. It is theirs to keep alive the great art of telling stories as a thing wholly apart from and independent of the art of writing stories, and to pass on their art to children and to children's children. They abide in a realm of their own, in blessed isolation from that world of professional authors and their milk-and-water books for children.

—C. B. Tinker, In Praise of Nursery Lore, The Unpopular

Review, October-December, 1916.

CHILDREN'S

LITERATURE

A TEXTBOOK OF SOURCES FOR TEACHERS AND TEACHER-TRAINING CLASSES

EDITED, WITH INTRODUCTIONS,

NOTES, AND BIBLIOGRAPHIES

by

CHARLES MADISON CURRY

and

ERLE ELSWORTH CLIPPINGER

Professors of Literature in the Indiana State Normal School

RAND McNALLY & COMPANY

CHICAGO               NEW YORK

Copyright, 1920, by

Rand M

c

Nally & Company

Copyright, 1921, by

Rand M

c

Nally & Company

All rights reserved

Made in U. S. A.

THE CONTENTS

SECTION I

PREFACE AND GENERAL INTRODUCTION

SELECTED GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. GENERAL COLLECTIONS OF CHILDREN'S LITERATURE

Tappan, Eva March, The Children's Hour. 10 vols.

Neilson, William Patten, and others, The Junior Classics. 10 vols.

Sylvester, Charles H., Journeys through Bookland. 10 vols.

Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, and others, The Young Folks' Library. 30 vols.

Mabie, Hamilton Wright, After School Library. 12 vols.

Scudder, Horace E., The Children's Book. [Best single-volume collection for early grades.]

Barnes, Walter, Types of Children's Literature.

II. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

Darton, F. J. Harvey, Children's Books, in Cambridge History of English Literature, Vol. XI, chap. xvi. [Best brief account of development in England. Elaborate bibliography.]

Tassin, Algernon, Books for Children, in Cambridge History of American Literature, Vol. II, chap. vii. [Best account of American development. Extended bibliography.]

Field, Mrs. E. M., The Child and His Book. The history and progress of children's literature in England. [Stops with 1826.]

Moses, Montrose J., Children's Books and Reading. [Deals with both English and American side. Book-lists and bibliographies.]

Ashton, John, Chapbooks of the Eighteenth Century.

Halsey, Rosalie V., Forgotten Books of the American Nursery.

Welsh, Charles, A Bookseller of the Last Century. [John Newbery.]

Godfrey, Elizabeth, English Children in the Olden Time.

Earle, Florence Morse, Child Life in Colonial Days.

III. GUIDES IN TEACHING

1. SPECIFIC PEDAGOGY

Barnes, Walter, English in the Country School.

Carpenter, G. R., Baker, F. T., and Scott, F. N., The Teaching of English. [Pp. 155-187, Literature in the Elementary Schools, by Professor Baker.]

Chubb, Percival, The Teaching of English.

Cox, John Harrington, Literature in the Common School.

Barron, Julia S., Bacon, Corinne, and Dana, J. C., Course of Study for Normal School Pupils on Literature for Children. [A syllabus.]

Hosic, James Fleming, The Elementary Course in English.

MacClintock, Porter Lander, Literature in the Elementary School.

McMurry, Charles A., Special Method in Reading in the Grades.

Welch, John S., Literature in the School: Aims, Methods, and Interpretations.

2. MORE GENERAL AND INSPIRATIONAL

Bates, Arlo, Talks on the Teaching of Literature.

Bennett, Arnold, Literary

Taste and How to Form It.

Colby, J. Rose, Literature and Life in School.

Kerfoot, J. B., How to Read.

Lee, Gerald Stanley, The Child and the Book.

Quiller-Couch, Sir Arthur, On the Art of Reading. [Children's Literature.]

Scudder, Horace E., Literature in the Schools.

Smith, C. Alphonso, What Can Literature Do for Me?

Woodberry, George E., The Appreciation of Literature. The Heart of Man.

3. GUIDES TO BOOKS FOR CHILDREN

Arnold, Gertrude W., A Mother's List of Books for Children.

Field, Walter Taylor, Fingerposts to Children's Reading.

Hunt, Clara W., What Shall We Read to the Children?

Lowe, Orton, Literature for Children.

Macy, John, A Child's Guide to Reading.

Moore, Annie Carroll, Roads to Childhood.

Olcott, Frances Jenkins, The Children's Reading.

One Thousand Good Books for Children. [Classified and graded list prepared by National Congress of Mothers' Literature Committee, Alice M. Jordan, Chairman. Issued by U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C., as Home Education Circular No. 1.]

Stevens, David Harrison, The Home Guide to Good Reading.

IV. BOOKS ON STORY-TELLING

Allison, S. B., and Perdue, H. A., The Story in Primary Education.

Bailey, Carolyn Sherman, For the Story-Teller.

Bryant, Sarah Cone, How to Tell Stories to Children. Stories to Tell to Children. [Introduction.]

Cather, Katherine D., Educating by Story-Telling.

Cowles, Julia D., The Art of Story-Telling.

Cross, Allen, and Statler, Nellie M., Story-Telling for Upper Grades.

Forbush, William B., Manual of Stories.

Horne, H. H., Story-Telling, Questioning, and Studying.

Keyes, Angela M., Stories and Story-Telling.

Kready, Laura F., A Study of Fairy Tales. [Chap. iii, The Telling of Fairy Tales.]

Lindsay, Maud, The Story-Teller for Little Children.

Lyman, Edna, Story Telling: What to Tell and How to Tell It.

McMurry, Charles A., Special Method in Reading in the Grades.

Moore, Annie C., Article Story-Telling, Cyclopedia of Education. [Ed. Monroe.]

Partridge, Emelyn N., and George E., Story-Telling in the School and Home.

Shedlock, Marie L., The Art of the Story-Teller.

St. John, Edward Porter, Stories and Story-Telling in Moral and Religious Education.

Wiltse, Sara E., The Place of the Story in Early Education.

Wyche, Richard Thomas, Some Great Stories and How to Tell Them.

V. ON DRAMATIZATION

Briggs, T. H., and Coffman, L. D., Reading in Public Schools. [Chap. x, Dramatic Reading, and chap. xxiii, Dramatics.]

Curtis, Elnora W., The Dramatic Instinct in Education.

Finlay-Johnson, Harriet, The Dramatic Method of Teaching.

Gesell, Arnold L., and Beatrice C., The Normal Child and Primary Education. [Chapter on Dramatic Expression.]

Herts, Alice M., The Children's Educational Theatre.

Nixon, Lillian E., Fairy Tales a Child Can Read and Act.

VI. THE BIBLE AS LITERATURE FOR CHILDREN

Moulton, Richard Green, A Short Introduction to the Literature of the Bible.

The simplest and best discussion for teachers of the Bible as literature. The books that follow are good sources for story material from the Bible.

Baldwin, James, Old Stories from the East.

Hodges, George, The Garden of Eden. The Castle of Zion. When the King Came.

Houghton, Louise Seymour, Telling Bible Stories.

Moulton, Richard Green, Bible Stories: Old Testament. Bible Stories: New Testament. [Two volumes of The Modern Reader's Bible for Children. The only variations from the text are by omissions.]

Olcott, Frances Jenkins, Bible Stories to Read and Tell.

Smith, Nora Archibald, Old, Old Tales from the Old, Old Book.

Stewart, Mary, "Tell Me a True Story."

VII. SOME INTERPRETATIONS OF CHILDHOOD

Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, The Story of a Bad Boy.

Du Bois, Patterson, Beckonings from Little Hands.

Gilson, Roy Rolfe, In the Morning Glow.

Grahame, Kenneth, Dream Days. The Golden Age.

Howells, William Dean, A Boy's Town.

Kelly, Myra, Little Citizens.

Larcom, Lucy, A New England Girlhood.

Loti, Pierre, The Story of a Child.

Martin, George Madden, Emmy Lou, Her Book and Heart.

Masters, Edgar Lee, Mitch Miller.

Pater, Walter, The Child in the House.

Shute, Henry A., The Real Diary of a Real Boy.

Smith, William Hawley, The Evolution of Dodd.

Stuart, Ruth McEnery, Sonny.

Walpole, Hugh, Jeremy.

Warner, Charles Dudley, On Being a Boy.

White, William Allen, The Court of Boyville.

VIII. SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL BACKGROUND

Addams, Jane, Youth and Our City Streets.

Adler, Felix, The Moral Instruction of Children.

Antin, Mary, The Promised Land.

Cabot, Ella Lyman, The Seven Ages of Childhood.

Dawson, George E., The Child and His Religion.

Engleman, J. O., Moral Education.

Griggs, Edward Howard, Moral Education.

Hall, G. Stanley, Youth.

Henderson, C. Hanford, Education and the Larger Life.

Hoyt, Franklin Chase, Quicksands of Youth.

Oppenheim, Nathan, The Development of the Child.

Puffer, J. Adams, The Boy and His Gang.

CHILDREN'S LITERATURE

SECTION I. PREFACE AND GENERAL INTRODUCTION

THE PREFACE

This book is primarily a handbook for teachers in the grades and for students preparing to teach in the grades. Although it does not ignore problems of grading and presentation, the chief purpose is to acquaint teachers and prospective teachers with standard literature of the various kinds suitable for use in the classroom and to give them information regarding books and authors to aid them in directing the selection of books by and for children.

In discussing the early training of children in literature with large classes of young people preparing for teaching in the grades, the compilers found themselves face to face with two difficulties. In the first place, only a limited number of these prospective teachers were in any real sense acquainted with what may be called the basic traditional material. Rhymes, fables, myths, stories were so vaguely and indistinctly held in mind that they were practically of no great value. It was therefore not possible to assume much real acquaintance with the material needed for use with children, and the securing of such an acquaintance seemed the first essential. After all is said, a discussion of ways and means must follow such a mastery of basic material.

In the second place, there was the difficulty of finding in any compact form a body of material sufficient in extent and wide enough in its range to serve as a satisfactory basis for such a course. No doubt the ideal way would be to send the student to the many authoritative volumes covering the various fields dealt with in this collection. But with large classes and a limited amount of time such a plan was hardly practicable. The young teacher cannot be much of a specialist in any of the various fields of knowledge with the elements of which he is expected to acquaint children. The principles of economy demand that the brief courses which specifically prepare for teaching should be such as will make the work in the schoolroom most helpful and least wasteful from the very beginning. Hence this attempt to collect in one volume what may somewhat roughly be spoken of as material for a minimum basic course in Children's Literature.

The important thing about this book, then, is the actual literary material included in it. The notes and suggestions scattered throughout are aimed to direct attention to this material either in the way of pointing out the sources of it, or helping in the understanding and appreciation of it, or suggesting some ways of presenting it most effectively to children.

In the case of folk material, an effort has been made to present reliable versions of the stories used. Many of the folk stories, for instance, appear in dozens of collections and in dozens of forms, according to the artistic or pedagogic biases of the various compilers. As a rule the most accessible stories are found in versions written down to the supposed needs of children, and intended to be read by the children themselves. Even if we grant the teacher the right to make extensive modifications, it is still reasonable to insist that some correct traditional form be used as the starting point. Such a plan insures a mastery of one's material. The sources of the versions used in this text are pointed out in order that teachers who wish to do so may extend their acquaintance to other folk material by referring to the various collections mentioned.

Such a book as this must necessarily be selective. No doubt omissions will be noted of poems or stories that many teachers deem indispensable. Others will find selections included that to their minds are questionable. The editors can only plead in extenuation that they have included what they have found by experience to offer a sound basis for discussing with training classes the nature of this basic material and the form in which it should be presented to children. To accomplish these ends it has sometimes seemed well to give parallel versions, and occasionally to give a version that will necessitate the discussion of such subjects as the use of dialect, the inclusion of items of terror or horror, and the soundness of the ethical appeal. These various problems are indicated in the notes accompanying individual selections.

The editorial apparatus does not constitute a treatise on literary criticism, or a manual of mythology or folklore, or a pedagogy of children's literature as such, or anything like an exhaustive bibliography of the fields of study touched upon. It aims at the very modest purpose of immediate and practical utility. It hopes to fill a place as a sort of first aid for the inexperienced teacher, and as soon as the teacher gets some real grasp of the elements of the problem this book must yield to the more elaborate and well-knit discussions of specialists in the various subjects treated. The bibliographical references throughout are intended to offer help in this forward step. These bibliographies are, in all cases, frankly selective. As a rule most of the books mentioned are books now in print. In the bibliographies connected with the sections of traditional material some of the more important works in the field of scholarship are named in each case for the benefit of those who may be working where such books are available in institutional or public libraries. Titles of books are printed in italics, while titles of poems, separate stories, and selections are printed in roman type inclosed in quotation marks.

The grouping of material is in no sense a hard and fast one. Those who work in literary fields understand the pitfalls that beset one who attempts such a classification. Only a general grouping under headings used in the ordinary popular sense has been made. Fine distinctions are beside the mark in such a book as this. Popular literature was not made for classification, but for higher purposes, and anything that draws attention from the pleasure-giving and spirit-invigorating qualities of the literature itself should be avoided. Hence, the classifications adopted are as simple and unobtrusive as possible.

Finally, the editors make no pretense to original scholarship. They have not attempted to extend the limits of human knowledge, but to point out pleasant paths leading to the limitless domains of literature. They have tried to reflect accurately the best practices and theories, or to point out how teachers may get at the best. Their obligations to others are too extended to be noted in a preface, but will be apparent on every page of the text. Their most important lessons have come from the reactions secured from hundreds of teachers who have been under their tuition.

Copyright obligations are indicated in connection with the selections used.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1. LITERATURE FOR CHILDREN

The beginnings. During the eighteenth century the peoples of Europe and America turned their attention in a remarkable way to a consideration of the worth and rights of the individual. In America this so-called democratic movement culminated in the Declaration of Independence in 1776. The most dramatic manifestation of the movement in Europe was the French Revolution of 1789, but every country of Europe was thrilled and changed by the new thought. Every important democratic movement leads to an awakened interest in the welfare of children, for they are among the weak and helpless. This great movement of the eighteenth century brought such a remarkable change of thought regarding children as to mark the beginning of a new kind of literature, known as literature for children.

Today we think of Andersen, Stevenson, Mrs. Ewing, and scores of others as writers of literature for children. Such writers did not exist before the democratic movement of the eighteenth century. It is true that a few short books and articles had been written for children as early as the fifteenth century, but they were written to teach children to be obedient and respectful to parents and masters or to instruct them in the customs of the church—they were not written primarily to entertain children and give them pleasure. Within the last century and a half, too, many authors have collected and retold for children innumerable traditional stories from all parts of the earth—traditional fairy stories, romantic stories of the Middle Ages, legends, and myths.

The child's inheritance. As has been indicated, children's literature is of two kinds: first, the traditional kind that grew up among the folk of long ago in the forms of rhyme, myth, fairy tale, fable, legend, and romantic hero story; and, second, the kind that has been produced in modern times by individual authors. The first, the traditional kind, was produced by early civilization and by the childlike peasantry of long ago. The best of the stories produced by the childhood of the race have been bequeathed to the children of today, and to deprive children of the pleasure they would get from this inheritance of folklore seems as unjust as to deprive them of traditional games, which also help to make the first years of a person's life, the period of childhood, the period of imaginative play. The second kind of children's literature, that produced in modern times by individual authors, has likewise been bequeathed to children. Some of it is so new that its worth has not been determined, but some of it has passed the test of the classics. The best of both kinds is as priceless as is the classical literature for adults. The world would not sell Shakespeare; yet one may well doubt that Shakespeare is worth as much to humanity as is Mother Goose. To evaluate truly the worth of such classics is impossible; but we may be assured that the child who has learned to appreciate the pleasures and the beauties of Mother Goose is the one most likely to appreciate the pleasures and the beauties of Shakespeare when the proper time comes.

The true purpose of education is to bring the child into his inheritance. For many years educators have talked about the use of literature in the grades as one means of accomplishing this purpose. The results of attempts to teach literature in the grades have sometimes been disappointing because often the literature used has not been for the grades; that is, it has not been children's literature. In other cases the attempts have failed because the literature has not been presented as literature—it has, for example, been presented as reading lessons or composition assignments. Students preparing to teach in the grades have been studying textbooks from which literature for children has been excluded, regardless of its artistic worth. Consequently many teachers have not been prepared to teach literature in the grades. Often they have assumed that the reading lesson would develop in the pupil an appreciation of good literature, not realizing that the reading lesson may cause pupils to dislike literature, especially poetry, unless it is supplemented by appropriate work in children's literature. If the student reads thoughtfully the literary selections in the following sections of this book, he probably will realize that children's literature is also literature for adults, and that it is not only the child's inheritance, but also the inheritance of humanity.

The fact that literature for children is likely to have a strong interest for adults is strikingly suggested in a few sentences in John Macy's A Child's Guide to Reading:

When juveniles are really good, parents read them after children have gone to bed. I do not know whether Tom Brown at Rugby is catalogued by the careful librarian as a book for boys, but I am sure it is a book for men. I dare say that a good many pairs of eyes that have passed over the pages of Mr. John T. Trowbridge and Elijah Kellogg and Louisa M. Alcott have been old enough to wear spectacles. And if Mrs. Kate Douglas Wiggin ever thought that in Timothy's Quest and Rebecca she was writing books especially for the young, adult readers have long since claimed her for their own. I have enjoyed Mr. A. S. Pier's tales of the boys at St. Timothy's, though he planned them for younger readers. We are told on good authority that St. Nicholas and The Youth's Companion appear in households where there are no children, and they give a considerable portion of their space to serial stories written for young people. Between good juveniles and good books for grown persons there is not much essential difference.

2. LITERATURE IN THE GRADES

Reading and literature distinguished. A country school-teacher once abruptly stopped the routine of daily work and, standing beside her desk, told the story of the maid who counted her chickens before they were hatched. One of her pupils, who is now a man, remembers vividly how the incident impressed him. Although he was in the second grade, that was the first time he had known a teacher to stop regular school work to tell a story. Immediately the teacher was transformed. She had been merely a teacher, one of those respected, awe-inspiring creatures whose business it is to make the school mill go; but the magic of her story established the relation of friendship between teacher and pupil. She was no longer merely a teacher. If the story had been read as a part of the reading lesson, it would not have impressed the pupil greatly. It was impressive because it was presented as literature.

A clear distinction should be made between reading and literature, especially in the primary grades. In the work of the reading course the pupil should take the lead, being guided by the teacher. If the pupil is to progress, he must master the mechanics of reading—he must learn to pronounce printed words and to get the meaning of printed sentences and paragraphs. The course in reading requires patient work on the part of the pupil, just as the course in arithmetic does, and the chief pleasure that the primary pupil can derive from the work is a consciousness of enlarged power and of success in accomplishing what is undertaken.

In the work with literature, however, the teacher should take the lead. She should open to the pupils the magic treasure house of the world's best story and song. The literature period of the day should be the pupil's imaginative play period, bringing relief from the tension of tired nerves. The teacher who makes the study of literature a mechanical grind instead of a joyous exercise of imagination misses at least two of her greatest opportunities as a teacher. First, by failing to cultivate in her pupils an appreciation of good literature, she misses an opportunity to make the lives of her pupils brighter and happier. Second, by failing to realize that the person with a story and a song is everybody's friend, she misses an opportunity to win the friendship, admiration, and love of her pupils. The inexperienced teacher who is well-nigh distracted in her efforts to guide forty restless, disorderly pupils through the program of a day's work might charm half her troubles away by the magic of a simple story or by the music and imagery of a juvenile poem. Her story or poem would do more than remove the cause of disorder by giving the pupils relaxation from nerve-straining work: it would help to establish that first essential to all true success in teaching—a relation of friendship between pupils and teacher.

Culture through literature. He was a wise educator who said, The boy who has access to good books and who has learned to make them his close friends is beyond the power of evil. Literature in the grades, in addition to furnishing intellectual recreation, should so cultivate in the pupil the power of literary appreciation that he will make good books his close friends. The child who has heard good music from infancy is not likely to be attracted by popular ragtime. The boy who has been trained in habits of courtesy, industry, and pure thinking in his home life, and school life is not likely to find pleasure in the rudeness, idleness, and vulgarity of the village poolroom. The pupil who is taught to appreciate the beautiful, the true, and the good in standard literature is not likely to find pleasure in reading the melodramatic and sentimental trash that now has prominence of place and space in many book stores and in some public libraries. It is the duty of the teacher, and it should be her pleasure, to cultivate in her pupils such a taste for good literature as will lead them to choose the good and reject the bad, a taste that will insure for them the culture that good literature gives.

Selection of material. In choosing selections of literary worth to present to her pupils, the teacher should keep in mind the pupil's stage of mental development and she should not forget that the study of literature should give pleasure. Often pupils do not like what moral writers think they should like, and usually the pupils are right. Good literature is sincere and is true in its appeal to the fundamental emotions of humanity, and an obvious attempt to teach a moral theory at the expense of truth is no more to be tolerated in literature for children than in literature for adults. The childhood of the race has produced much literature with a true appeal to the human heart, in the form of fable, fairy story, myth, and hero story. Most of this literature appeals strongly to the child of today. For several hundred years the nursery rhymes of Mother Goose have delighted children with their melody, humor, and imagery. As literature for the kindergarten and first grade, they have not often been excelled by modern writers. The task of selecting suitable material from the many poems, stories, and books written for children in recent years is difficult, but if the teacher has a keen appreciation of good literature and is guided by the likes and dislikes of her pupils, she probably will not go far astray.

Supplemental reading. If the teacher examines the juvenile books offered for sale by the book dealers of her town or city, she probably will discover that most of them are trash not fit to be read by anyone, and she will realize the importance of directing parents in the selection of gift books for children. A good way to get better books into the book stores and into the hands of children is to give the pupils a list of good books, with the suggestion that they ask their parents to buy one of them the next time a book is to be bought as a present. Such lists of books also will improve the standard of books in the town library, for librarians will be quick to realize the importance of supplying standard literature if there is a demand for it.

3. STORY-TELLING AND DRAMATIZATION

Story-telling. Most stories are much more effective when well told than they are when read, just as most lectures and sermons are most effective when delivered without manuscript. To explain just why the story well told is superior to the story read might not be easy, but much of the superiority probably comes from the freedom of the talk style and the more appropriate use of inflection and emphasis. Then, too, the story-teller can look at her audience and is free to add a descriptive word or phrase occasionally to produce vividness of impression. Some stories, of course, are so constructed that they must follow closely the diction of the original form. Henny-Penny and Kipling's Just-So Stories are of this type. Such stories should be read. Most stories, however, are most effective when well told. The teacher, especially the teacher of one of the primary grades, should not consider herself prepared to teach literature until she has gained something of the art of story-telling.

Selection of stories. Never attempt to tell a story that you do not like. You are not prepared to interest pupils in a story, however appropriate it otherwise may be, if you are not interested in it yourself. Try to choose stories adapted in structure and content to the age and experience of the children of your grade. For the first or second grade, choose a few simple fables, a few short, simple fairy tales, and a few short, simple nature stories, such as Peter Rabbit, How Johnny Chuck Finds the Best Thing in the World, and Mr. 'Possum's Sick Spell. Remember that a story for the first or second grade should be short.

Two principles. Learn to apply readily the following principles of method: First, use the past tense in telling a story except in direct quotation. The rules of grammar require this, and it is an aid to clearness and effectiveness. For example, do not say, So he goes or Then he says; but say, So he went or Then he said (or, for variety, replied, growled, mumbled, etc.). Second, use direct discourse (the exact words of the characters) rather than indirect discourse. For example, do not say, The Troll asked who was tripping over his bridge; but say, 'WHO'S THAT tripping over my bridge?' roared the Troll. Direct discourse always gives life and vividness to a story.

Preparation and presentation. When you have selected a suitable story, read it carefully several times to learn the essential details and the order in which they should come. Keep in mind the fact that you are to use the past tense and direct discourse. If the story is a fable, you probably will see that you should add much conversation and description not in the text. A little description of the witch, giant, fairy, or castle may give vividness to your story. If the story is a long fairy tale, you may see that many details may be omitted. If the story is as concise and dramatic as is the version of The Three Billy-Goats Gruff in this book, it may be suitable for presentation without any changes. When you have the story clearly in mind as you wish to present it, tell it to the pupils several times, and then have some of them tell it.

Your story, of course, should not be told in a lifeless monotone. Some parts should be told slowly, and others rapidly. In some parts the voice should be low and soft, while in other parts it should be loud and gruff or harsh. The words of the princess should not sound like those of the old witch or the soldier. The daintiness and grace of elves and fairies should be indicated in the delivery.

Corroborative opinion. The many books on the art of story-telling by skilled practitioners and the emphasis placed upon the great practical value of story-telling by all those charged with the oversight of the education of children show conclusively that the story method in teaching is having its grand renascence. The English education minister, Mr. H. A. L. Fisher, speaking recently on the subject of History Teaching, set forth admirably the general principles back of this revival:

There is no difficulty about interesting children. The real difficulty is to bore them. Almost any tale will interest a child. It need not be well constructed or thrilling; it may be filled with the most unexciting and trivial incidents, but so long as it carries the mind along at all, it will interest a child. The hunger which intelligent children have for stories is almost inexhaustible. They like to have their stories repeated, and insist that the characters should reappear over and over again, for they have an appetite for reality and a desire to fix these passing figments into the landscape of the real life with which they are surrounded.

One of the great qualities in childhood which makes it apt for receiving historical impressions is just this capacity for giving body to the phantoms of the mind. The limits between the real and the legendary or miraculous which are drawn by the critical intelligence do not exist for the childish mind. . . . It would then be a great educational disaster if this valuable faculty in childhood were allowed to run to waste. There are certain years in the development of every normal intelligent child when the mind is full of image-making power and eager to make a friend or enemy of any god, hero, nymph, fairy, or servant maid who may come along. Then is the time when it is right and fitting to affect some introductions to the great characters of mythology and history; that is the age at which children will eagerly absorb what they can learn of Achilles and Orpheus, of King Arthur and his Knights, of Alexander and Christopher Columbus and the Duke of Wellington. I do not think it is necessary to obtrude any moralizing commentary when these great and vague images are first brought into the landscape of the child's intellectual experience. A little description, a few stories, a picture or two, will be enough to fix them in the memory and to give them body and shape together with the fairies and witches and pirate kings and buccaneering captains with whom we have all at one time been on such familiar terms. Let us then begin by teaching the past to small children by way of stories and pictures.

Dramatization. The play spirit that leads children to play lady, doctor, church, and school will also lead them to enjoy dramatizing stories, or playing the stories, as they call it. Some stories, of course, are so lacking in action as to be not well suited for dramatization, and others have details of action, character, or situation that may not well be represented in the schoolroom. The teacher may be surprised, however, to see how ingenious her pupils are in overcoming difficulties after they have had a little assistance in playing two or three stories. Unconsciously the pupil will get from the dramatization a training in oral English, reading, and literary appreciation that can hardly be gained in any other way.

When the pupils have learned a story thoroughly, they are ready to make plans for playing it. The stage setting may be considered first, and here the child's imagination can work wonders in arranging details. The opening under the teacher's desk may become a dungeon, a cave, a cellar, or a well. If a two-story house is needed, it may be outlined on the floor in the front part of the schoolroom, with a chalk-mark stairway, up which Goldilocks can walk to lie down on three coats—the three beds in the bed-chamber of the three bears.

The pupils can probably soon decide what characters are necessary, but more time may be required to assign the parts. To play the part of a spider, bear, wolf, fairy, sheep, or butterfly does not seem difficult to a child who has entered into the spirit of the play.

The most difficult part of dramatization may be the plan for conversation, especially if the text version of the story contains little or no direct discourse. The pupils should know the general nature of the conversation and action before they begin to play the story, although they need not memorize the parts. Suppose that the fable The Shepherd's Boy is to be dramatized. The first part of the dramatization might be described about as follows:

The shepherd boy, tending his flock of pupil-sheep in the pasture land at one side of the teacher's-desk-mountain, looked toward the pupil-desk-village at one side of the room and said quietly, It certainly is lonely here. I believe I'll make those villagers think a wolf has come to eat the sheep. Then perhaps they'll come down here, and I'll have a little company and some excitement. Then he jumped around frantically, waving his yardstick-shepherd's crook, and shouted to the villagers, Wolf! Wolf!

The villagers came rushing down to the pasture land, asking excitedly, Where's the wolf? Has he killed many of the sheep?

Oh, oh, oh, laughed the boy, there wasn't any wolf. I certainly did fool you that time.

I don't think that's very funny, said one of the villagers.

Well, we might as well go back to our work, said another. Then they went back to the village.

After they had gone, the boy said, I guess I'll try that joke again.

If the teacher puts much direct discourse in a story of this kind when she tells it to the pupils, the task of dramatizing will naturally be made easier.

Some stories lend themselves in the most natural manner to dramatization. An interesting example of such a story may be found among the tales dealing with the Wise Men of Gotham. These Wise Men are referred to in one of the best known of the Mother Goose rhymes. It would seem that the inhabitants of Gotham, in the reign of King John, had some reason of their own for pretending to be mad, and out of this event the legends took their rise. The number of fishermen may be changed to seven or some other number to suit the number in the acting group. Here is the story:

On a certain time there were twelve men of Gotham that went to fish, and some stood on dry land. And in going home, one said to the other We have ventured wonderfully in wading. I pray God that none of us come home to be drowned. Nay, marry, said the other, let us see that, for there did twelve of us come out. Then they counted themselves, and every one counted eleven. Said the one to the other, There is one of us drowned. They went back to the brook where they had been fishing and sought up and down for him that was drowned, making great lamentation.

A stranger coming by asked what it was they sought for, and why they were sorrowful. Oh! said they, this day we went to fish in the brook; twelve of us came together, and one is drowned. Said the stranger, Tell how many there be of you. One of them, counting, said, Eleven, and again he did not count himself. Well, said the stranger, what will you give me if I find the twelfth man? Sir, said they, all the money we have got. Give me the money, said the stranger, and began with the first, and gave him a stroke over the shoulders with his whip, which made him groan, saying, Here is one, and so he served them all, and they all groaned at the matter. When he came to the last he paid him well, saying, Here is the twelfth man. God's blessing on thy heart, said they, for thus finding our dear brother.

4. COURSES OF STUDY

As an aid to inexperienced teachers, it seems well to suggest in a summary how a selection of material suitable for each grade might be made from the material of this book. The summary, however, should be regarded as suggestive in a general way only. No detailed outline of a course of study in literature for the grades can be ideal for all schools because the pupils of a given grade in one school may be much more advanced in the knowledge of literature and the ability to understand and appreciate it than are the pupils of the same grade in another school. Many literary selections, too, might appropriately be taught in almost any grade if the method of presentation in each case were suited to the understanding of the pupils. Robinson Crusoe, for example, may appropriately be told to second-grade pupils, or it may be read by fourth- or fifth-grade pupils, or it may be studied as fiction by eighth-grade pupils or university students. All poems of remarkable excellence that are suitable for primary pupils are also suitable for pupils in the higher grades and for adults, and the same is