That Monstrous Regiment

By Harry Stone

Here, for the first time, are outlined the subterfuges and wiles of the six queens who largely ruled Europe during the second half of the sixteenth century, as well as the complex relationships between them. Up against what was essentially a man’s world, they proved highly adept at using women’s intuition and marriage – or more particularly engagement – to gain international advantages. They also showed an ambiguity towards Protestantism which was in stark contrast to the tyranny of kings. Above all, these were the women who stormed the cartel of male rulers and were the first to win respected places on the stage of international politics. As a journalist, the author has felt at liberty to pursue and describe these fascinating and unconventional characters and incidents beyond the strict confines of the qualified historian.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Mereo Books
• Release date: Jun 29, 2015
• ISBN: 9781861513151

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HARRY STONE

That Monstrous Regiment

The birth of women’s political emancipation

Copyright ©2015 by Harry Stone

Smashwords Edition

First published in Great Britain in 2015 by Mereo Books, an imprint of Memoirs Publishing

Harry Stone has asserted his right under the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 to be identified as the author of this work.

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not by way of trade or otherwise be lent, resold, hired out or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any form of binding or cover, other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition, including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.

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ISBN: 978-1-86151-315-1

Contents

Part I 1542-1558: The First Ladies

John Knox’s mistaken conception - Margaret and Mary, two pioneering Habsburg governesses - Birth of Mary Queen of Scots - Marie protects her daughter - Treaty of Greenwich - Catherine’s unexpected motherhood, her life and tribulations -Anchrum Moor - Beaton murdered – Pinkie Cleugh and Henry VIII’s ‘rough wooing’ - baby Mary sent to France - Marie’s warm London reception - Marie made Regent and revises Scottish law and administration and tries to modernise the army - military reliance on the French - Mary Tudor’s accession - the tragedy of Lady Jane Grey - Mary’s turbulent childhood - religious fanaticism encouraged by churchmen marriage to Philip - Habsburg Channel interests - drawn into war and the loss of Calais - gunpowder bankrupts two kings - the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis.

Part II 1559-1568: The Ladies Muster

The new female generation - Elizabeth emerges from the shadows - Elizabeth’s character, indecision, religious inclination and Scottish tactics - Marie’s disastrous enforcement of Catholicism, calls for French help - Protestantism and the Renaissance effect - Arran’s subversive conversion - Marie dismissed - Death of Marie - Elizabeth and protestant neutrality – French families split by faith Catherine seizes power and her policy of family first - War of the Insignia - Treaty of Edinburgh - Elizabeth’s Huguenot sympathies and the Le Havre landing - Mary arrives in Scotland and pacifies the Protestants - Elizabeth’s amours- Northern nobles rebel - Catherine’s royal progress - Mary’s disastrous Darnley marriage and his murder - Bothwell kidnaps Mary, her imprisonment - the Battle of Carberry Hill.

Part III: The Cockpit of Europe, 1569-1575

Mary seeks Elizabeth’s protection - European interest switches to the Netherlands - the Beggars take refuge in England - Elizabeth commandeers Spanish treasure - Negotiations for Calais fail – Mary and the casket letters trial - Norfolk’s hopes of marrying Mary - Elizabeth’s engagement to French princes - Treaty of Blois - Elizabeth allows volunteer support for the Netherlands - Catherine’s children shake off her influence - Charles sympathises with the Huguenots - Catherine’s adoption of murder and the St. Bartholomew massacre - Siege of Rochelle – Elizabeth favours Spain Popish plots against Elizabeth and English Parliamentary precautions -Anjou is imprisoned and his first escape - Anjou surrounds Paris - Treaty of Beaulieu - Philip refuses Anjou’s marriage to his daughter - Anjou’s second imprisonment - Elizabeth proposes engagement renewal - Catherine loses power to Henri’s favourites - Anjou to London - Elizabeth’s Spanish shipping raids renewed - Drake knighted - the Pope calls for Elizabeth’s assassination.

Part IV: 1576–1587, Spanish Silver

Philip increases his silver income and takes Portugal - Drake raids Lisbon Margaret reinstated in the Netherlands - Anjou has Henri’s tacit support in the Netherlands and liberates Cambrai - Elizabeth rebuffs Anjou’s new advances, his treacherous behaviour - Guises sign the treasonable Joinville treaty with Philip - Elizabeth takes positive action in the Netherlands - the Babington Plot and Mary’s execution - Henri loses his struggle with Guise -The night of the barricades – Henri flees Paris - murder of Guise - death of Catherine and Henri.

Part V: Elizabeth Defiant, 1588-1603

Philip and Elizabeth prepare for the Armada - the English and Spanish navies - the Armada battle - Elizabeth resumes raids on Spanish ports spread of world trade - Philip invades France and Elizabeth sends troops to Brittany - Navarre converts to Catholicism and takes Paris - Elizabeth a sole survivor - Essex and ghosts from the past - death of Elizabeth.

OTHER BOOKS BY HARRY STONE

Adult Bedwetters and Their Problems - a cause of homelessness

Better Charity Management

The Casebook of Sherlock Doyle - true mysteries investigated by Conan Doyle

The Century of Musical Comedy and Revue

Ski Joy - a social history of winter sports

Slippery Slopes, - a cartoon guide to happier skiing Stage Effect Sensations

Writing in the Shadow - resistance publications in occupied Europe

PART I

1542-1548 The First Ladies

John Knox should really have known better when writing about his Monstrous Regiment of Women. How abominable before GOD, he thundered, is the Empire or Rule of Wicked Woman, yea, of a traitress and bastard. His tirade, which appeared in his pamphlet First blast on the Trumpet, was politically incorrect even in 1558. He was in exile in Geneva at the time, so he must have been well aware that in the Netherlands two Governesses, Margaret of Austria and Mary of Hungary, had already become acknowledged throughout Europe as highly-skilled practitioners in international diplomacy. Indeed, they were the first women to reach such status in the modern world. No instead he chose to pour out his wrath upon Scotland’s Regent Marie of Guise and Mary Tudor. Yet both were almost completely under the thumb of their men.

Moreover his choice was ill timed, because both ladies were quite evidently nearing the end of their lives.

Knox was also showing duplicity over what should have been his Christian belief. All down history Kings happily engineered war on the assumption that they would win and so could claim their victory as proof their rule was favoured by God. The ladies, in contrast, preferred to settle their international problems through marriage or, more precisely, through engagement. So, in all logic, he should have blessed them as peacemakers.

Margaret of Austria was the first woman in this gender revolution. She had the advantage of having been born into the Habsburg family. While most empires have been created through waging war, the Habsburgs accumulated their estates through marriage. Consequently the family were able to dispense with the normal way of securing an empire. Instead of executing the leaders they had conquered, they made them their relations. So they were quite used to having women as major players in their empire. It was a policy they were to pursue most successfully for a further three centuries, until eventually their Austrian Hungarian Empire was blown to pieces by the First World War.

Even so it was a significant decision when, in 1531, the Emperor Maximilian appointed his daughter Margaret as Governess of the Netherlands. It was no mean appointment. At that time the Netherlands was one of the richest countries in Europe and included Antwerp, the most important port in the world. Its spectacular ascendency in overseas trade had turned it into a European centre for financiers and bankers.

On being appointed Governess, Margaret quickly confirmed her ability by out-manoeuvring those heavyweight bullies HenryVIII and Cardinal Wolsey. She inveigled them into signing an agreement over the wool trade which was blatantly to the advantage of the Flemish weavers. She did, however, hold very strong prejudices as regards nationality. She had great love for England. Indeed she had been in the running for marriage to Arthur, heir to HenryVII. She had also greatly come to like Thomas Boleyn while he had been Ambassador to her court at Malines. He, in turn, had been filled with admiration at the sophistication and culture of her household. This was why he sent his daughter Anne for her ‘finishing’ in etiquette and parlez vous. And that, of course, had proved highly successful - even though the end had been so tragic.

In contrast, she hated the French. Again this was entirely personal, for she had been brought up to believe Francis I would be her husband. Then, while she was still in her teens, he jilted her, and even more demeaning, he went on to marry her stepmother.

Margaret charmed everyone with her beauty and her open, radiant face. Once, when she was visiting a Spanish provincial town, the crowd waiting to welcome her was so dense it was feared she would be crushed, so she had to stay outside until after nightfall, when it was hoped there would be fewer people. She brought this charm to the negotiating table and with it an effective calm to the squabbling factions in the Netherlands. By the time she retired, after more than twenty years, she was held in the highest esteem, not only in the Netherlands but throughout Europe.

No doubt emboldened by this success, when in 1533 Charles V, now head of the Habsburgs, had to appoint her successor, he chose his sister, Mary of Hungary. A small, slight woman, her bulging eyes, heavy eyelids and full lips made her look disdainful. Unfortunately her appearance was an accurate reflection of her character. In contrast to Margaret’s charm, humour and open frankness, Mary was implacable, and seemed to take pleasure in humiliating those around her.

She had been born actually in the Netherlands and had remained there until she was eight. But on returning at the age of 25, any hope that she might be sympathetic to the people she was to rule proved to be very wide of the mark. Her loyalty was totally and exclusively devoted to Charles. Originally she had, like the other women, been completely ambivalent over the different faiths. As a result a large proportion of her household had come to include Calvinists. However, when Charles made it a condition that she should purge her household of heretics, she showed not the least compunction in sacking the lot.

She started off at a disadvantage for, although she had been brought up by Margaret, she still had little or no practical knowledge for the job. Her inexperience was immediately apparent, for even in her inaugural speech she muttered, as though embarrassed to raise her voice. Even those close by could not hear her. Charles fully realised the situation and, after having supervised her arrival, he remained by her side, guiding her for almost a year. And when he did leave, he left her surrounded by a multitude of advisers so as to give her little latitude.

Besides a state council, she had a privy council and a finance council and to prevent her from doing anything rash, he had given the state council power to overrule any of her decisions. Her task was made the more difficult since nearly all these appointees were new; most of those who had been advising Margaret had retired at about the same time as she had.

Mary had not been Governor long before she too was confronted with marriage problems. Three years earlier, Charles had suggested to James V of Scotland that he might like to marry Dorothea, daughter of the exiled King of Denmark, who was now under Habsburg care. James had refused, saying the age difference was too great. Now it looked as though he was going to marry a French woman. This would be an alliance with the enemy. So Margaret told him this was not at all a good idea and that he should think again about marrying Dorothea. Instead James took offence and sent the acid response that while he agreed the princess was now older, so was he. His objection therefore remained. Then, as feared, he went on and married the French woman.

The second marital problem arose in 1538 and concerned Henry VIII. Having ruthlessly disposed of his third wife, Henry was proposing that Christina, another Danish princess, should become his fourth. Christina was the Governess s niece and ward. So it was up to her to keep the delicate balance between not offending the powerful Henry yet protecting her niece from his advances. She wrote laconically to her brother Charles: It is to be hoped, if one can hope anything from such a man, that if this one bores him, he will find a better way of getting rid of her. I believe that most women would not appreciate it very much if this kind of habit became general, and with reason. And although I have no inclination to expose myself dangers of this kind, I do after all belong to the female sex, so I shall also pray God that he may protect us from such perils.

So Mary dragged her feet over all the necessary preliminaries to such an extent that at last the English ambassador asked her direct if her intentions were genuine. With extreme diplomacy she simply lowered her eyes and blushed, which he correctly interpreted as a sign that she was not.

Soon Henry s rapaciousness was again testing her negotiating skills. In 1532 the Ottoman Empire was threatening Europe, and the brunt of defence fell upon Charles with his Mediterranean coastline. At the same time, HenryVIII was threatening war. It was up to Mary to persuade Henry to forget all the resentment he might still be harbouring over the way she had stalled over his wish to marry Christina. She had to persuade him it was his duty as a Christian, regardless of denomination, to rally round and help fight the Ottoman heathens. She was certainly successful, for the English Ambassador wrote in his report, if His Majesty had heard the Queen of Hungary s words and seen the engaging expression on her face he would undoubtedly be inclined the more generously to do whatever he thought best. It brought brilliant results, for within ten days Henry had signed a treaty of reciprocal support.

But Mary s troubles were far from over. Henri of France could never let things be. He was bent on settling old scores with Charles. Mary foresaw that this would lead to another outbreak of war and it would almost certainly mean the invasion of her region of the Habsburg realm. But when she asked for help, typically Charles did not reply. So, with her usual energy, she made a tour, inspecting all the defences of Artois, Namur and Luxembourg. She ordered all Frenchmen to leave the country and instructed the innkeepers to keep records of their guests so that she could check against possible spies. Above all, she raised funds from the ever-reluctant Dutch. She made it clear that it was their area that was threatened. As a result they proved to be comparatively forthcoming.

It was just as well. France did indeed invade. Now everything seemed against Mary. A short while before, she had hoped to improve relations by asking Charles to replace the Spanish generals with native Dutchmen. For once, he had obliged. And now that the crucial time had come, they were fighting more among themselves than against the enemy. She herself had to impose a scorched earth policy, devastating large tracts of the country.

Still the French advanced, and she was just about ready to give up. She wrote to Charles begging him, not for the first time, to relieve her of her post. Her plea is interesting for the light it throws on the problems confronting even a skilful woman in office during the 16th century. Of course her letter contained an element of despair, for she was by this time over 50 years old and had spent more than 20 years struggling with all the problems of authority. In her own words:

"I am of the opinion that whoever acts as a regent for a ruler must have more understanding of affairs than the person who governs on his own account [by which she meant an anointed sovereign] and is therefore only responsible to God. If he does whatever lies within his power, he has done his duty. But a regent has to account not only to God but also to his sovereign and his sovereign s subjects... experience has taught me that a woman is not suited to the purpose, neither in peacetime nor in time of war. Your majesty is himself in a position to judge that I have often done more than was fitting for my position and vocation as a woman.

"Your Majesty also knows what insurmountable difficulties we would have met with if you had not been in the country yourself during the last war. Difficulties which I could not have removed because as a woman I was compelled to leave the conduct of the war to others.

Your Majesty will nevertheless be able to understand that it is difficult for someone like me, who has served you till the end, to have to think in my old age of learning my ABC all over again. It is suitable that a woman of fifty who has served you for at least twenty-four years, should content herself for the rest of her life with one God and one master. Moreover, I see in the Netherlands a young generation to whose ways I cannot and would not wish to accommodate myself. Loyalty and respect towards God and the Sovereign have deteriorated in such a way and the number of devoted servants is so small (a phenomenon to be observed not only in this country but almost everywhere) that not only would I not wish to rule over such people, even if I were a man and sufficiently capable, but I take so much offence at them that I do not wish to live even as a private person surrounded by people amongst whom I cannot do my duty either towards God or towards my Sovereign. I can assure your Majesty, and God is my witness, that I loathe governing so much that I would rather work for my living than occupy myself with it.

And again Charles refused.

But then came news that the French were retreating. She forgot all her worries and dashed around urging her recalcitrant generals to sort themselves out and make a proper effort: Take the offensive, don t exhaust yourself bothering with sieges. A few days later she said, If France will wait for just another fortnight, I ll show them for what purpose God gave a woman strength.

She was as good as her word. She girded herself in full war panoply, complete with black leather jerkin over her tabard. She set out for the front with a body of horse to give the French a present. The English ambassador, who was in her suite, was much impressed.

He wrote back saying the French were indeed about to have a rude awakening. At the last moment her Council stepped in and forbade her to go into the firing line, but her leadership bore fruit and soon after her forces captured St. Pol.

Unfortunately, on her retirement, all the progress both she and Margaret had made towards the emancipation of women rulers fell into abeyance.

That aforementioned French woman, whom James V had married despite Mary’s discouragement, was Marie of Guise. So it is little wonder that there was no love lost between them. The distaste was evidently mutual, for when Marie later asked for some favour from Charles V, it was Mary who replied with frigid formality that the request was invalid, since it had not been made through the official channels

Now in August 1542, Marie was pregnant. But all did not presage well. James lost the battle of Solway Moss against the marauding bully Henry VIII. Furthermore, he lost hope, for it left him isolated, with most of his leading nobles taken prisoner.

Probably suffering a mental breakdown, James took to his bed. There they brought him news that Marie had successfully given birth, but it was not the prince he had been hoping for; it was a girl. He simply turned his face to the wall, and within five days he was dead.

So here was Marie, a defenceless widow with a new-born babe in a foreign land. The relationship between Scotland and England had for long been fraught, for England realised it was only too easy for the Scots to be wooed into an alliance with either Spain or France. This would make their country an ideal springboard for invading England.

Henry had tried to counter this, and formed an alliance with the Scots by marrying his sister Margaret to James IV. But he was not best pleased when his brother-in-law refused to go along with him in throwing out the Catholics and embracing Protestantism. In due course Henry found his nephew, James V, no less obdurate. He refused to join him in plundering the Church lands. Then, when Henry summoned him to a meeting at York, James did not turn up, and the powerful English monarch suffered the humiliation of being kept waiting.

In fact James had been warned, and with good cause, that if he went he would probably not be allowed to return home. But in winning the battle of Solway Moss, Henry was following a strange policy. He must have known then that Marie was eight months pregnant and the birth would leave him with an ideal opportunity. If the child was a girl, she could marry his son Edward, and if it was a boy, there was his daughter Elizabeth. Despite this, Henry chose to use this latest victory as an opportunity to impress upon the Scots that any thoughts of alliance with another European country would bring down on them terrible retribution. He followed through his victory by burning and pillaging without mercy and far beyond the acceptable ravages of war. It was so incongruous to Henry’s ambitions that the skirmish became known as the Rough Wooing.

Hardly had Marie begun suckling the child than the crude, unprincipled Scottish chieftains were making advances from every side. In the sixteenth century a baby princess was extremely vulnerable. Under the conventions of the time, her betrothal made her little more than a diplomatic bargaining pawn. But when the Princess was also heir to a throne, she became a magnificent prize. As had happened with the Habsburgs, the husband would take over the throne and the country would be added to his realm. Consequently princesses who were future queens were betrothed while still a baby and usually married just before puberty.

So Marie had hardly given birth before she and her daughter were being circled by fathers prowling as surrogate suitors. At the front of the queue was HenryVIII, anxious to book the young princess for his son Edward. And now he apparently considered all his recent outrages of no particular concern. Brushing them aside, he demanded the princess for his son. Indeed he seemed to think he already owned the girl. He demanded that she should be sent to London so that he could oversee her education.

Marie was perfectly capable of handling Henry. Indeed, he had proposed to her before she had married James. The fact that she had turned him down in preference for a minor royal in a benighted little country must have hurt his pride. Also, her witty aside must in due course have reached his ears. When wooing her, he had complimented her on her figure. Once out of hearing, she had remarked Yes, but I have a slender neck.

Nor was she anybody’s fool. She was, after all, the daughter of the mighty Duke Claude de Guise, whose family considered themselves to be second only to the King of France.

She was a remarkable character in her own right. She was tall and had presence. She had courage too, for there were occasions when she appeared actually on the battlefield urging on her troops, yet she had the softness to remain feminine. She had charm, and this helped make her a successful conciliator and enhanced her ability at persuasion. From her family she had learnt prudence, tolerance and she was naturally intelligent.

When she had first arrived in Scotland, she had been horrified at the primitive state of the country, the houses and the people. But, careful not to deride her new country, she had gone to great lengths to praise wherever she could. She found Fife particularly charming and she was enchanted by the children.

And behind this lay a quick and shrewd mind. Almost at once she realised that if a woman in Scotland wanted something,