Christianity and Suffering: African Perspectives

By Langham Global Library

We often hear these days that the centre of Christianity is moving toward the Global South and Africa is a key player in that movement. This makes the study of African Christianity and African realities important – even more so when it is being done by Africans themselves in their own context. The Africa Society of Evangelical Theology (ASET) was created to encourage research and sustained theological reflection on key issues facing Africa by and for African Christians and those working within African contexts. The volumes in the ASET series constitute the best papers presented at the annual conferences of ASET and together they seek to fill this important gap in the literature of Christianity.

Africa is all too familiar with suffering. Yet there is a dearth of sustained theological reflection on suffering by Africans, or for Africans. Christianity and Suffering: African Perspectives addresses this need and is the fruit of the 5th Annual Conference of the Africa Society of Evangelical Theology. The contributions address age-old issues like why God does not prevent or relieve human suffering; they wrestle with causes of suffering including witchcraft, poverty, curses, and war; and they also explore appropriate Christian responses to suffering, all from within the African context.

The Africa Society of Evangelical Theology (ASET) is a professional society, founded in 2009 for the purpose of fostering evangelical theological scholarship and to facilitate collegial relationships among scholars and practitioners of the Christian religion in Africa. Its core values are: (1) Faithfulness to the Bible, (2) Professional ethics, (3) Creative and critical thinking, (4) Christ-like humility, (5) Community of scholars encouraging, respecting, and learning from one another, and (6) Development and inspiration of young scholars. To learn more about ASET, please visit its Facebook page: facebook.com/AfricaSocietyOfEvangelicalTheology

• Language: English
• Publisher: Langham Global Library
• Release date: Dec 14, 2017
• ISBN: 9781783683611

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This book emanates from conference papers under the auspices of the Africa Society of Evangelical Theology. This is an attempt by eminent evangelical theologians to reflect upon suffering and pain from an African perspective. The authors have dealt with the doctrine of theodicy from an African setting, thus instilling Christian hope in the midst of pain, misery and untold suffering. They have endeavored to demonstrate that even in suffering our loving God is still in control.

Professor Zablon Nthamburi, PhD

Professor of Theology, Africa Nazarene University, Nairobi, Kenya

Former Presiding Bishop of the Kenya Methodist Church

In this publication, the Africa Society of Evangelical Theology takes a look at Christianity and suffering from an African perspective. Personal and corporate sin leads to suffering. God is not seen as author but as Redeemer from both sin and suffering. Some writers expose unique African negative contributions to suffering, and other writers challenge the church in Africa to find and implement appropriate solutions.

Daryll Gordon Stanton, EdD

Former Chair, Department of Religion, Africa Nazarene University, Nairobi, Kenya

Christianity and Suffering

ASET Series

African Perspectives

General Editor

Rodney L. Reed

ASET Series

© 2017 by by The African Society of Evangelical Theology (ASET)

Published 2017 by Langham Global Library

An imprint of Langham Publishing

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Published in partnership with the Africa Society of Evangelical Theology

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Contents

Cover

ASET Series

Preface

Acknowledgments

Part I

Suffering in the African Context

1 Poverty and Suffering: The Role of the Holy Spirit

Abstract

Introduction

Literature Underpinning Theories of Poverty

Application

Important Clarification

Way Forward

Conclusion

Bibliography

2 Politicians, Funerals, and the Bereaved in Kenya: Biblical Perspectives on Death and the Afterlife in Light of 2 Samuel 1:2–27

Abstract

Introduction: Mourning Practices in Kenya

The Concept of Death and the Afterlife in the Old Testament

Analysis of the Song of the Bow, 2 Samuel 1:17–27

Lessons from the Song of the Bow

Conclusion

Bibliography

3 Sickness in Africa: A Holistic, Integrated, Christian Understanding and Response

Abstract

Introduction

Why a Christian Response to Sickness?

Dualistic, Fragmented, Not Fully Christian Response

Steps Toward a Holistic, Integrated, Fully Christian Understanding and Response

Conclusion Based on Ebola Outbreak

Bibliography

Websites

4 Why Nigerian Christians Accuse People of Witchcraft: A Review of Cases Among the Igbo Nigerians

Abstract

Introduction

Methods

People Involved (Accused and Accuser) in Witch Accusations in Nigeria

Results and Discussion of the Cases

How to Respond to What Is Happening

Conclusion

Bibliography

5 Loving Witches: A Christian Educational Intervention to Help Those Accused of Witchcraft in Northwest Tanzania

Abstract

Introduction

The Research-Based Educational Intervention Plan

Effectiveness of Seminars out in Communities

Critique

Other Educational Interventions on Witchcraft Accusations

Conclusion

Bibliography

Part II

The Christian Response to Suffering

6 Following Jesus in a World of Suffering and Disaster

Abstract

Introduction

A Realistic Look at Our World of Suffering and Disaster

Following Jesus

The Message of the Cross

Conclusion

Bibliography

7 A Missional Approach to Suffering Inflicted by Spiritual Powers: A Case Study of Northern Kenya

Abstract

Introduction

Missional Theology Applied to Spiritual Encounters

Steps in Missional Theology

Step 1: Phenomenology

Step 2: Ontology

Step 3: Missiology

Dealing with Ayyaana-Related Issues in Marsabit Town

A Comprehensive Approach to Alleviate Suffering under Spiritual Forces

Conclusion

Bibliography

8 A Christian Response to Curses in Africa

Abstract

Introduction

Awareness of the Existence and Effects of Curses in Africa and throughout the World

Selected Old Testament Cases of Causes and Effects of Curses

The Provisional Nature of Some Curses

Old Testament Curses and the New Testament

Conclusion: The Antidote for Curses in the New Testament Era and for Africa Today

Bibliography

9 Why Prosperity Gospel Preachers Are Prospering While Most of Their Members Are Suffering

Abstract

Introduction

Working Definitions

Desperation Resulting from Poverty

The Spirit World in African Religiosity

Lack of Theological Education

The Bible and Prosperity

Conclusion

Bibliography

10 Strengthening Christian Responses to Human Suffering

Abstract

Introduction

A Portfolio of Human Suffering in Kenya

Meeting Human Needs as Part of the Church’s Fulfillment of the Great Commission of Jesus

Growth of the Church

The Need for the Redemption of the World in All Its Aspects through Empowerment

The Need to Fight and Eliminate the Scandal of Human Suffering through Contextual Solutions

Activities That African Christians Can Undertake to Reduce Human Suffering in Their Communities: Lessons from Christian Aid Organization

Christians as Missionaries and Change Agents Helping to Eliminate Personal Sins That Cause Human Suffering

Historical and Contemporary Christian Role Models of Compassionate Interventions

Conclusion

Bibliography

Part III

Toward an African Christian Theodicy

11 Is God a God of Retribution? A Worldview Interpretation Using the Four-Legged-Stool Hermeneutical Model

Abstract

Introduction

The Story of Wanjiru (Rugano Rwa Wanjiru)

The Man Born Blind in John 9

Parallels between Jewish and African Perspectives of Suffering

The Corrective

Significance for Today

A Caution

Conclusion

Bibliography

12 The Book of Job: A Challenge to African Spirituality Regarding Human Suffering

Abstract

The African Concept of Suffering Exemplified Using the Agĩkũyũ Culture

How the Wisdom in the Book of Job Informs Both Traditional Israelite and African Spirituality on Suffering

Conclusion

Bibliography

List of Contributors

About ASET

About Langham Partnership

Endnotes

ASET Series

We often hear these days that the center of Christianity is moving toward the Global South and Africa is a key player in that movement. This makes the study of African Christianity and African realities important – even more so when it is being done by Africans themselves in their own context. The Africa Society of Evangelical Theology (ASET) was created to encourage research and sustained theological reflection on key issues facing Africa by and for African Christians and those working within African contexts. The volumes in the ASET series constitute the best papers presented at the annual conferences of ASET and together they seek to fill this important gap in the literature of Christianity.

Preface

Suffering is a universal human phenomenon. From the beginning of recorded history, humans have struggled to come to terms with the question Why suffering? The Christian faith has contributed its share to this discussion. The Christian Scriptures contain many attempts to wrestle with that question, and Christian pastors, theologians, and ordinary believers have reflected deeply on the meaning of suffering in light of their own experience and in light of the nature and character of God and their fellow humans. African Christians are no exception. In fact, an argument could be made that, due to a confluence of past and present circumstances, the people of Africa have more collective familiarity with suffering than most peoples of the earth. Indeed, with Africa’s intimate experience with suffering, it only makes sense to mine the wisdom of the African Christian community for the benefit of global Christianity.

This volume represents the best of the papers presented at the 5th Annual Conference of the Africa Society of Evangelical Theology on the topic of Christianity and Suffering, held on the campus of International Leadership University in Nairobi, Kenya, on 7 March 2015. The contributors, though not all African by birth, reflect on suffering from the perspectives of their own ministry contexts, including Nigeria, Tanzania, South Sudan, and Kenya. Though it is difficult to put them into categories, the following is an outline. Part I includes contributions which underscore the various causes of suffering in the African context, including witchcraft, poverty, curses, war, sickness, and death. Here contextualization is at its best with contributions by Bawks, Chemorion, S. Rasmussen, Priest and J. Rasmussen. Part II focuses on the Christian response to suffering with contributions from Dau (who was the keynote speaker), Wang’ombe, Joshua, Mbede, Thuo and Stanton. The final section, Part III, highlights the relation of suffering to our understanding of God, providing fodder for an African Christian theodicy with contributions from Mburu and Githuku. The contributors approach the issue of suffering from varied angles but they all share a common Christian evangelical and African lens through which to view it. It is hoped that this volume will make a contribution to the ongoing dialogue of Christians around the world and throughout history about the Christian response to suffering.

Rodney L. Reed

Chair, ASET Editorial Committee

Acknowledgments

There are many people to thank who have been part of the production of this work. I wish to thank the Executive Committee of the Africa Society of Evangelical Theology for their commitment to see the research of African Christian scholars of religion gain a wider hearing. Thanks also go to the Publication and Communication Committee and the Editorial Committee of ASET for their contribution to this volume. Special thanks are due to Andrew Wildsmith who, despite great personal challenges, painstakingly reviewed and edited most of these papers. The editorial work was then picked up and extended by Professor Melitus Wanyama, whose attention to detail is much valued. Most of all we give thanks to God without whom the publication of this volume would never have come to pass.

Part I

Suffering in the African Context

1

Poverty and Suffering: The Role of the Holy Spirit

David Bawks

Minister, Tyrannus Hall Training Ministry, Nairobi Chapel

Abstract

Many people around the world find themselves in poverty, and this is often accompanied by high levels of suffering and hardship. Despite the attempts of countless organizations and movements to eradicate these social ills, poverty and its related suffering continue to affect hundreds of millions of people. Poverty is a continuing challenge in Kenya, and must be addressed by the church. Many churches preach the attainment of wealth as the solution to poverty, without fully addressing the suffering or core issues at stake.

This chapter will begin by exploring the definition of poverty, arguing that poverty is not merely a lack of material resources but primarily a lack of relationships and social power, drawing from Jayakumar Christian’s explanation of poverty as relational powerlessness, arising from many interrelated causes. Some of the most important causes of poverty are spiritual, relating to the spiritual wellbeing of those in poverty and spiritual warfare against the forces of evil.

What is the Christian response to poverty? How can the church address this challenge? Overcoming the relational gap between the poor and the non-poor and the negative consequences of many well-intentioned but damaging attempts to assist the poor can only be done in the power of the Holy Spirit. This chapter argues that the Holy Spirit is essential to any holistic approach to alleviating the suffering of poverty, and that the spiritual situation must be prayerfully taken into account when helping the poor.

Key words: poverty, suffering, Holy Spirit, relational powerlessness, disempowerment, spiritual warfare, Kenya

Introduction

Poverty has become an enormous challenge facing God’s people, and as they act to alleviate the suffering it causes, they are more than ever aware of the liberating works of the Holy Spirit. This chapter focuses on the suffering of the poor and how the Holy Spirit can work healing through that suffering. What is the best way to reduce the suffering of the poor?

To answer this question we must understand who the poor are, and why they are poor. The nature and causes of the suffering brought by poverty must also be explored. When poverty is understood in a primarily relational light, the transformational work of the Holy Spirit is seen as essential to overcome the debilitating effects of the social, spiritual, and economic entanglements of poverty.

A holistic understanding of the many interrelated causes of poverty must include the spiritual factors that affect the economic or material situation. Spiritual warfare and poverty reduction are not often combined in development work or the church, and yet they go hand in hand. Poverty is a terrible trap of disempowerment and marginalization, and the most significant evidence of this can be seen in the relational consequences. This chapter argues that the Holy Spirit is essential to any holistic approach to alleviating the suffering of poverty, and that the spiritual situation must be prayerfully taken into account when helping the poor.

Literature Underpinning Theories of Poverty

Defining and understanding the nature and various causes of poverty is a difficult but necessary challenge for the church and all who wish to help those in need. This conceptual foundation will determine the approach taken to combat poverty. Fortunately, there exists a wealth of resources that explore this topic and trace how popular conceptions of poverty have changed over time. This chapter relies heavily on the contributions of Bryant Myers and Jayakumar Christian in defining poverty as relational powerlessness that excludes the poor from full access to social, material, political, and economic resources. This definition will become clearer after a survey of other approaches and an exploration of how these terms apply.

Byrant Myers provides a helpful survey of various definitions of poverty, particularly in the context of development. He begins with an early view of poverty as a deficit or lack, particularly of material things.[1] The obvious response to such an understanding of poverty is to supply these missing things and resources. John Friedman observes that these basic-needs approaches were prominent in the 1970s.[2] A slightly more nuanced view is that poverty is a lack of knowledge or education, in which case the solution is learning and training. A related understanding is described by Jayakumar Christian as seeing the poor as backward, those using outdated techniques. Thus, the solution would be modernization, an infusion of technology and modern methods.[3] Both of these views are true to an extent, but they also dangerously oversimplify the realities and extent of poverty.

Moving away from the approaches outlined above, Friedman advocates an alternative development, which means a focus on people and their environment rather than production and profits.[4] In terms of poverty, this model is politically directed and is based on the assumption that poor households lack the social power to improve the condition of their members’ lives.[5] He further explains the meaning of this social power in terms of the state, civil society, the corporate economy, and political community.[6] Shifting the focus to social conditions and access to power has significant repercussions for alleviating poverty.[7] These views have helped to advance understandings of poverty from a simplistic materialist framework.[8]

Jayakumar Christian builds upon the above conceptions, insisting that the definition of poverty cannot be reduced to one or two factors, but all the different aspects must be integrated and considered together. Working from an Indian context, he explores four components of social realties: (1) effort of humans (srama); (2) place and region (desa); (3) the time dimension (kala); and (4) character or natural traits (guna).[9] He unpacks each concept, but especially focuses on the first component, the srama, getting at how relationships and power affect poverty. Christian summarizes four specific aspects of powerlessness within the srama dimension:

• Powerlessness is the captivity of the poor within god-complexes of the non-poor, structures and systems;

• Powerlessness is the exclusion of the poor from the mainstream of life;

• Powerlessness implies a community of persons becoming non-community; and

• Powerlessness involves lack of love and compassion, and consequent insecurity.[10]

A number of technical terms introduced above require more explanation, including god-complexes, which will be described in more detail in the next section. Non-poor is a term used by some in the development field to refer to those who do not suffer from poverty, to avoid other problematic designations such as the rich or the middle-class. Exclusion or marginalization describes how the poor are not accepted into the mainstream, meaning the poor are often not welcome in many places where the non-poor congregate or go to relax. This could include parties and other entertainment venues, as well as less tangible aspects such as job considerations, networks, and connections with leaders and other powerful people.

In addition to the human dynamics described above, the physical location of the poor also plays into their marginalization. The poor usually live in areas that are outside the main parts of town, and are placed out of sight as much as possible. They are blocked from participating in opportunities that are often readily available to the non-poor. In environmental catastrophes such as drought, floods, earthquakes, and fires the poor are often the most vulnerable and the least protected.[11] Marginalization is an important concept to grasp as it plays a strong role in how the poor interact with others. Kathy Charmaz writes, Suffering underlies feelings of being marginalized when people feel relegated to the edges of social life or condemned to an undeserved fate.[12] She goes on to elaborate five undercurrents that underlie this marginalization:

1. Some identifiable social entity constitutes a core, a center;

2. Implicit or explicit measures locate certain people as part of this core;

3. These measures separate or distance other people from the core;

4. Marginalizing processes are inherently comparative; and

5. Marginalized individuals and collectivities hold a problematic status in society. They are subject to power and hierarchical relations.[13]

The third dynamic – time, or kala – can be seen in the all-consuming efforts of many in poverty just to survive, leaving little leisure or free time available to them. Character traits, the fourth dynamic, refer to the many assumptions made about the nature and characteristics of the poor. In an Indian context, the caste system has resulted in members of the lowest caste being viewed as subhuman and deeply inferior to those of the upper castes.

The poor are entrapped in a web of lies, and these lies strike at the very heart of their understanding of their identity and their vocation. Examples of these lies about poverty are that the poor deserve to be disenfranchised, and that their situation is payback for personal shortcomings or past wrongdoings. Another lie is that the poor have no hope of ever improving their situation. Statements like these work together to entrap those who believe them in subjection and inferiority, just as a spider would trap its prey. These lies are upheld by flawed assumptions and interpretations that are rooted in the religious systems, the worldview of a people, and the work of the principalities and powers.[14] Myers describes these lies, saying, the result of poverty is that people who are poor no longer know who they are (being) nor do they believe that they have a vocation of any value (doing).[15]

Christian focuses on the problem of powerlessness, finding it to be a feature of poverty that cuts across all the different spheres of life. He summarizes these implications: these reflections suggest that powerlessness of the poor is relational. Powerlessness is the captivity of the poor within god-complexes created by the non-poor, built into structures and systems, shaped by the spiritual interiority within the power cluster. If poverty and powerlessness are about captivity of the poor to god-complexes, should not the response to powerlessness be defined as establishing the kingdom of God?[16]

The Suffering of Poverty

These definitions of poverty also play a critical role in how the poor are viewed and are foundational for any understanding of the inherent suffering of poverty. Myers writes, Our view of them, which quickly becomes their view of themselves, is that they are defective and inadequate.[17] The reverse of this is that the non-poor often view themselves as saviors of the poor, which also damages their own spiritual wellbeing. This is the phenomenon that is often referred to as a god-complex, since those working with the poor are setting themselves up in the place of God, and it is central to comprehending how those in poverty suffer. A god-complex is often not created consciously, but can be highly damaging nonetheless.

Some of the worst aspects of poverty are dehumanization, shame, lack of respect, and lack of perceived value in the community. These are the relational effects of poverty, which destroy the potential of equal relationships and a valid, accepted position in mainstream society. Unfortunately, attempts made to improve the lot of the poor often only make these aspects worse. The god-complex only increases the suffering of the poor in the most significant aspect – that of the poor’s self-image and perceived value. Christian offers a more detailed definition of god-complexes, saying they are: (1) Clusters of power (social, economic, bureaucratic, political and religious) within the domain of poverty relationships that absolutize themselves to keep the poor powerless; (2) A function of structures, systems, people and the spiritual interiority within each cluster of power.[18]

Every society and modern state has clusters of power, and an economic structure that is almost always designed by those with resources and social capital. Charging exorbitant interest on payday loans is one example of how the poor can be taken advantage of by those with access to greater resources. For the poor, who are driven by desperation to take such loans, paying back the interest of these loans continues to entrap them in a negative economic situation. An economy paralyzed by corruption, requiring payoffs to secure jobs or contracts, also serves to advantage the wealthy and keep the poor shut out of opportunities that could improve their financial status. Corruption in the political sphere often achieves a similar effect by ensuring an unequal allocation of state resources and capital.

Jesus declared, Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven (Matt 5:3).[19] This can be interpreted in various ways, with the most non-material approach arguing that Jesus has no interest in financial or material poverty, but is concerned only with the deprivation of the spirit that accompanies humility or recognition of personal limitations. Yet poverty at its heart is a wound of the spirit, and this is the problem that Jesus is addressing here. Those who are poor by material measures are also poor in spirit, due to the exclusion and powerlessness they experience. These wounds of the spirit must be addressed and healed just as much as deprivations of material possession or food. As Myers summarizes his survey of the nature and causes of poverty, he concludes that poverty is fundamentally relational, with a fundamentally spiritual cause.[20] Addressing a relational problem with a spiritual cause will require a relational and spiritual solution, and this can only be done through the power of the Holy Spirit.

Other Aspects of Suffering

Considerable work has been done on how many types of suffering, such as loss or trauma, can be a means of growth and transformation. Minton and Antonen write, The potential for meaning and fullness are planted within each experience of suffering. The fullness of this experience is multifactorial, i.e. suffering is variable; extends beyond pain as the sole etiology; permeates physical, psychological, social, and spiritual dimensions; is temporal; creates powerlessness and alienation; and holds the promise of transformation.[21] Suffering due to poverty can be similar in some ways to this description, yet also significantly different in certain regards. Poverty is certainly multifactorial, encompassing a number of dimensions, causes alienation and loss of power, and is sometimes temporal, although for many it is an enduring situation with little hope or expectation of improvement.

Transformational suffering has become its own area of study, and can be a powerful way of working with those going through terribly painful experiences. T. David Beck explains, Let us understand transformative suffering to be physical, emotional, relational, or spiritual discomfort that God (a) allows to happen and does not quickly remedy, (b) deepens or makes more acute, or (c) directly causes – all for the greater purpose of carrying out transformational work in an individual or a community.[22] Steve Taylor quotes Grof to describe how traumatic experience can lead to transformation: For Grof, a ‘spiritual emergency’ is an intense and dramatic experience that disturbs the normal stable structure of the mind, releasing new energies and potentials and so bringing the possibility of psychological transformation.[23] The traumatic experiences referenced here are often the loss of a loved one, depression, or a serious illness.[24] Taylor explains the connection between trauma and transformation: perhaps the main reason why turmoil and trauma can trigger transformation is because they have the effect of dissolving psychological attachments. Under normal circumstances, most human beings are psychologically attached to a large number of constructs, such as hopes and ambitions for the future, beliefs and ideas concerning life and the world, the knowledge they have accumulated, and their image of themselves, including their sense of status, their appearance, and accomplishments and achievements.[25] This loss of psychological attachments can be positive or negative, and in the case of poverty relates to the topics described above of societal exclusion and marginalization. A breakdown of one’s connection to others has a dramatic effect on one’s spiritual status and self-understanding. Rankow describes another aspect of suffering: Suffering is both an intimately personal and isolated experience, and a bond shared with all humankind. It is possible, then, that in the experience of suffering we are afforded a window through which to glimpse our fundamental unity with others.[26] Unfortunately, however, it is this very unity with others that is often denied those who are suffering the effects of poverty. The poor are made to feel removed and isolated from the rest of humanity, suffering alone without the support of the wider community.

The Holy Spirit and Suffering

Having explored some of the aspects of the suffering of poverty, the next step is to integrate an understanding of the role of the Holy Spirit in addressing this suffering. The Holy Spirit is not often associated with suffering or poverty. Described by Jesus as the comforter or helper in John 14:16 and 14:26, the Holy Spirit is best known for providing gifts and fruit in believers. However, as the Holy Spirit works deeply through sanctification and spiritual growth, this process is often entangled with suffering. Mark 1:12 specifies that as Jesus was beginning his ministry, it was the Spirit who drove him into the wilderness to suffer hunger and be tempted by the devil.

The Holy Spirit is the believer’s greatest source of power, gifting, and guidance in the fight against evil. In a verse that has become significant for many attempting to uncover the multifaceted aspects of poverty, Paul