Clinician's Guide to Treating Companion Animal Issues: Addressing Human-Animal Interaction

By Christopher Blazina

Clinician’s Guide to Treating Animal Companion Issues: Addressing Human-Animal Interaction is the first of its kind—a groundbreaking resource for mental health professionals who want the knowledge, skills and awareness to successfully work with pet-owning clients. The book trains clinicians across multiple disciplines to feel more comfortable and confident addressing companion-related issues—both when those issues are the primary reason for seeking therapy or a critical component in better understanding client needs. The book uses current human-animal interactions theories as a foundation to explore pet-related issues utilizing behavioral, cognitive behavioral, family systems, humanistic and contemporary psychodynamic therapeutic orientations.

Users will find sections on the many issues that arise during the lifespan of pet owners (e.g., children, young adults, elderly), as well as issues pertinent to specific populations (e.g., men, homeless, ethnically diverse). Additional topics include the violence link, pet death and bereavement, and behavioral issues. As the first book to approach human-animal interactions (HAI) from a multi-theoretical perspective, it helps clinicians appropriately acknowledge and incorporate relevant HAI issues within therapy to achieve goals.

• Provides practical information for immediate use in practice
• Focuses on common issues relating to companion animals
• Addresses bereavement, attachment, behavior, and more
• Includes interactive readings, case studies and therapeutic exercises
• Contains multiple theoretical orientations (behavioral, cognitive behavioral, family systems, humanistic and psychodynamic approaches)

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Sep 14, 2018
• ISBN: 9780128129630

Book preview

2014.

Chapter 1

The Human-Animal Bond Over the Lifespan: A Primer for Mental Health Professionals

Aubrey H. Fine    California Poly State University, Pomona, CA, United States

Abstract

Within this introductory chapter, an explanation will be given highlighting the significance of the human-animal bond (HAB). Specifically, within this chapter, emphasis will be presented providing a clear definition of HAB. Attention will also be given to discuss the theoretical underpinnings of why these relationships are so valued.

Keywords

Human-animal bond; American Veterinary Medical Association; Kinship; Attachment theory; Social support theory; Biophillia; Health benefits

In the early 1970s, Carole King wrote a song called Anticipation. For some, the anticipated moment or event seems teasingly beyond occurrence. Waiting for June 30 to arrive was one of those occasions. I had been looking forward to that day for close to 7 months. What started as a devastating period with the passing of our oldest Golden Retriever (a moment we were not waiting for), eventually lead to a happier moment with meeting our new puppy. There was a tremendous sense of loss in the family when our oldest Golden passed away. Although we knew she had cancer, one is never really ready for the end. The loss was felt not only by my wife and me but also by our younger dog who was five. She seemed devastated by the death of her pal. She had lost her best friend and constant playmate. Although impossible to replace a departed soul, in our hearts we knew eventually we would be ready to welcome a new puppy into our family. For several months, we didn’t even want to think about getting another dog, but eventually our hearts began to heal and we felt ready. Anticipation was an appropriate description of our mindset as we waited for the day we would pick up our new puppy. We shopped for her and got everything ready for the big day. Carole King couldn’t have written a song with a better title that reflected the yearning we felt deeply within our souls. On June 29, while we were flying to Phoenix, Arizona to pick her up, many images went through our minds. Images of bittersweet memories of our beloved Magic came to our minds, along with excitement about meeting our new four-legged friend. Who would have fathomed that a pet could have so much meaning to two adults. But this puppy represented a new chapter in our lives together. We named our new puppy Mystic, in honor of our dog who passed away earlier that year. Her name was Magic.

This narrative was selected to begin this chapter because it highlights the significance that many people feel about their animals. This was a personal story that just occurred recently for my wife and me. Although personal, the experience is representative of outcomes that many families experience when losing a beloved family companion animal or anticipate acquiring a new pet. Understanding the roles that animals have in our lives is an opportunity that mental health providers should understand/consider as they support and treat individuals and families. Clinicians should become more aware of the fact that for many of their clients, their pets are an integral part of their being. Understanding this and the roles that these animals have (good or bad) can provide practitioners with a window into their clients’ homes and psyches. What was once only considered a simple curiosity or perhaps misdirected love, relationships with companion animals has blossomed into a serious and respected course of inquiry that can help inform us about our client’s relationships with not only their pets, but other human connections. Today, science is discovering that our pets can be good for our both physical and mental well-being.

Within this introductory chapter, I plan to provide an explanation of the significance of the human-animal bond (HAB). Specifically, we will go over the definition of HAB as well as providing a few theoretical explanations of why these relationships come into existence.

Companion Animals in Our Lives

Over the years, pet ownership has grown in America. According to the 2017–2018 American Pet Products Association (APPA) National Pet Owner Survey, 68% of households own a pet, which equates to about 84.6 million homes. In fact, in 1988, when the first survey was conducted by APPA, only 56% of US households owned a pet, so we see a growth of about 12% in close to 30 years. Tables 1–5 provide a breakdown on the various dimensions of pet ownership in the United States for 2017–2018. Table 1 identifies that dogs are in approximately 60.2 million US households, while cats are in 47.1 million households in the United States. Table 2 clarifies the actual breakdown of the total number of pets in the United States. Although cats are in less US homes, there are more cats than dogs in the United States. There are 89.7 million dogs in our homes while there are 94.2 million cats. Other species of animals are identified in Table 2.

Table 1

Table 2

Table 3

In 2016, $66.75 billion was spent on our pets in the United States.

Table 4

For 2017, it estimated that $69.36 billion will be spent on our pets in the United States.

Table 5

Tables 3 and 4 look at the expenditures people make in caring for their pets. As can be seen in the table, the most significant expenditure is food, which accounts for close to $29 billion annually. Finally, Table 5 offers details on the total annual expenditures for all expenses related to pet caring. The APPA estimates that in 2017, $69 billion will have been spent on animal care. These tables provide a glimpse of the growing importance and value that animals have in the lives of many citizens in the United States.

The literature is filled with data suggesting that pets are more likely to be found in households with children than in any other household configuration. Fine (2014) points out that most parents acquire animals for their children in the belief that pets can teach lessons of responsibility and nurturing while also providing a source for companionship and love. Fine (2014) points out that most parents reveal that children maintain high levels of daily involvement in caring for, and playing with family pets as they grow from preschoolers to teens. These interactions appear to stay consistent even though other dimensions of children’s family time decreases as they age. Pets appear to help strengthen and maintain family ties.

It is important to point out that many people are so engaged in having pets in their lives that they consider their pets as their children, and refer to themselves as mommies and daddies. They also talk to their pets using mother-ese or what some call baby talk (Archer, 1997), a type of talking that is filled with endearing speech.

Our positive interactions with animals have existed over thousands of years—ever since the domestication of dogs and cats (approximately 30,000 years for dogs and about 9000 years with cats—Galibert, Quignon, Hitte, & Andréard, 2011). In most cases, humans befriended animals and welcomed them into their lives for companionship, hunting, and security. The animals that were the most intuitive, cooperative, helpful, and friendly were most welcomed. From the time that dogs evolved from wolves, they have developed numerous behavioral traits that have supported and enhanced their interactions with humans. Science is now discovering that dogs seem to have more advanced cognitive skills than previously thought, skills that have helped them coexist with humans. For example, it was once believed that dogs were not capable of understanding verbal communication but rather relied on their advanced nonverbal abilities to help them understand human gestures and behavior. However, Andics and Miklosi reported in Science (Andics et al., 2016) that research now suggests that some dogs may be capable of recognizing more than 1000 words. This capability is definitely an asset in their interactions with humans. Furthermore, research by Udell and Vonholdt (recently reported in Science Advances—July 19, 2017) suggests that one of the biggest transformations of dogs in the process of domestication from the wolf may be due to two genes (GTF2I and GTF2IDI). These genes appear to have a direct impact on dogs’ intense ability and desire for social contact. They are considered the friendly genes and help foster positive interactions with people.

Given the changes in the human US family structure, the presence of pet ownership have become even more prominent. Home family size has been dramatically shrinking since the baby boom, and consequently we see fewer children per family. In 2012, the American Humane Association (AHA, 2012), with support from PetSmart Charities, conducted a survey that was administered to 1500 US respondents. The survey looked at 1500 consumers between the ages of 18 and 34 and separated them into three groups of 500. It is critical to point out that the sample utilized may be helpful in predicting pet adoptions of adults in the future. The subgroups that were established consisted of one group that had never owned a dog or a cat as an adult (and who were considered non-pet owners), and a second group who had previously owned a cat but not within the last 12 months. Finally, a third group consisted of people who had previously owned a dog but not within the past 12 months.

The underlying objective of the study was to examine the possible barriers and concerns of pet ownership for young adults. The findings were very revealing. The research suggested that dogs were more likely considered as future pets rather than cats. In fact, previous dog owners were more likely to consider adding a dog to their household, while previous cat owners were not as likely to consider doing the same with another cat. The researchers also identified the barriers that discouraged pet ownership. Highest on the list was the cost of taking care of new pets and the needed resources. As noted in the earlier tables, there are many additional costs associated with having a pet, and these financial responsibilities seemed to be of great concern. Some of the responders noted the lifestyle changes that would need to occur if a pet is adopted into the family. Other factors included the daily cleanup and care of the animal, and the reluctance to experience grief over the loss of a beloved pet (including not wanting to experience it again).

What Is the HAB?

In many ways, the metaphor HAB captures the spirit of the infant- parent bond. The term HAB was borrowed from the association found between parents and their offspring—the, so-called parent-infant bond. Many believe that for a HAB to form, the association between humans and their pet animals must be mutual and significant. The first official use of the term human-animal bond appeared in the Proceedings of the Meeting of Group for the Study of Human-Companion Animal Bond in Dundee, Scotland, March 23–25, 1979. In essence, healthy relationships with pets and their owners involve a complex psychological and physiological interaction that appear to have a profound influence both on human and animal health and behavior.

Many definitions of this unique relationship exist today. Perhaps the most utilized definition was established by the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA). According to the AVMA, the human-animal bond is defined as a mutually beneficial and dynamic relationship between people and other animals that is influenced by behaviors that are essential to the health and well-being of both. This includes, but is not limited to, emotional, psychological and physical interactions with people, other animals, and the environment (AVMA, 1998, p. 1975). Although the AVMA definition gives us tremendous insight into our desire to be with animals, some would argue that an ingredient missing from the definition is the love that many humans feel toward these beings. The Greek term that is used to describe this special type of love—familial love—is known as storge. Fine (2014) points out that it is this familial love that cements the relationship with our pets and promotes a sense of kinship with animals.

Scrutinizing the AVMA’s definition reveals a few factors that we can consider more specifically. Fine (2014) elaborates upon some of the factors. The first factor that appears to influence our interest in animals is the interpretation, or sometimes the misinterpretation, of certain behaviors that are human-like. This anthropomorphic position suggests that within these relationships, some people view various animals’ characteristics as having human qualities. These perceptions can lead to both healthy and unhealthy human-animal relationships.

The animal’s dependence on humans is the second critical factor. Many individuals recognize how dependent their pets are on them, but because they view their pets as friends and members of their family, they and willing to provide the care needed. Over the years, we have witnessed pets leaving backyards and garages and entering our homes and bedrooms. These nonhuman animals have become an integral part of our family life. Becoming part of people’s daily routine is the third factor. It’s not uncommon for owners to spend time doing things together with their companion animals (e.g., walk, hike, travel, etc.) that enhance everyone’s lives. In essence, we share our lives together. Additionally, for some people, companion animals provide a sense of security. They can serve as protectors for some, while for others, they serve as a sympathetic companion.

Although the benefits to human-animal interactions are highlighted more often than the challenges, it is naïve to believe that there are not occasions where these interactions can be hurtful and/or damaging. There is a wealth of research that addresses the dark side of these interactions and correlates the link between domestic violence and animal abuse. Boat (2010) discusses that some battered mothers and children stay in families where domestic violence occurs, so that they can protect the animal from the perpetrator. Fine (2014) highlights that the literature clearly points out that children, other adult family members, and pets are at risk in homes where domestic violence occurs. It is now an accepted position that when animals are abused in homes, children are also likely to be abused as well (Ascione et al., 2007). Unfortunately, children who are exposed to domestic violence early in their lives are more likely to be cruel to animals as they get older, in comparison to children who were not exposed to violence in their homes.

Finally, although relationships with nonhuman animals can be valuable and enriching, there are times when some individuals develop unhealthy dependencies on their pets which can result in isolation from other people. For others, these unhealthy pet relationships may put strains on their interactions with others. This is a critical variable that should be considered by mental health providers while serving their clients. Additional attention to these challenges will be covered in other chapters of this book.

The HAB and Its Health Benefits

Science is catching up to what many have believed for centuries: that having animals in our lives is good for our well-being. The status of the HAB has been elevated over the past several decades because of the empirical evidence supporting the physiological and psychological benefits of interacting with animals. Ever since the pioneer research by Friedmann, Katcher, Lynch, and Thomas (1980) and Friedmann, Beck, and Lynch (1983) demonstrated that pet ownership was associated with better recovery in patients discharged from a coronary care unit, there has been great interest in studying the impact of the HAB. Further studies have revealed that petting a dog lowers blood pressure and/or heart rate (e.g., McGreevy, Righetti, & Thomson, 2005; Shiloh, Sorek, & Terkel, 2003). In the past couple of decades, several other studies have discovered that contact with animals can also produce hormonal changes. The research points out that during interactions with a perceived friendly dog, human cortisol (stress hormone) levels decreased significantly, and both humans and dogs experienced an increase in oxytocin, an endorphin that promotes a sense of happiness (Odendall & Meintjes, 2003). Changes in blood pressure, heart rate, cortisol, and oxytocin are not the only benefits of human-animal interactions. Table 6 synthesizes some of the literature and highlights some of the physiological and psychological benefits of pet companionship.

Table 6

Reprinted with permission from Fine, A. H. (2014). Our faithful companions: Exploring the essence of our kinship with animals. Crawford, CO: Alpine Publications Inc.

Why We Bond With the Companion Animals We Live With

Clinicians working with individuals who have pets should also have some understanding as to why people turn to their pets for comfort and relationships. There are a few established theories that explain how this unique bond is established. The following section provides a brief discussion of each theory. They are the social support theory, attachment theory, and biophilia hypothesis. Fig. 1 (Fine & Mackintosh, 2016) uses the analogy of a three-legged stool to illustrate the relationship between the three HAB theories.

Fig. 1 Elements of human-animal bond. Reprinted with permission from Fine, A. H., & Mackintosh, T. K. (2016). Animal-assisted interventions: entering a crossroads of explaining an instinctive bond under the scrutiny of scientific inquiry. In H. S. Friedman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of mental health (2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 68–73). Waltham, MA: Academic Press.

To assist in explaining how each of the theoretical orientations can be applied to a human-animal relationship, I will utilize a short case study about a woman, in which I will apply each theoretical orientation. In this manner, as a reader, you will be able to view this person’s relationship through the lens of each of the theoretical orientations:

Shelly is a 52-year-old woman who lived independently in an apartment. She lived only a few blocks from her mother and felt very responsible for her mother’s well- being. Shelly has been unemployed for several years, and, although she dated, she often spent most of her time at home or with her mother. When her mother passed away, she was devastated. She became chronically depressed, anxious and extremely lonely. About seven months after the death of her mother, she elected to get a small dog to help her with her loneliness. Six years after the death of her mother, she got married, and the dog has become the apple of her heart.

Social Support Theory

The first hypothesis highlights that companion animals serve as a social support for humans. Some believe that positive social support includes meaningful social contact, having the availability of confidants, and companionship. The desire to socialize and bond with others is a fundamental human drive. Humans seek social relationships, and according to the research of Straub (2007), companion animals can help fulfill this desire to bond. As sources of social support, animals provide comfort and strength and serve as outlets for our feelings and emotions during stressful circumstances (Fine & Eisen, 2016; Melson, 2001; Strand, 2004). The following story of Rose helps elucidate this. Rose was recently widowed from her husband of over 45 years. In the past, while raising their children, they had several cats. They both loved them, but when their last cat died over 14 years ago, they didn’t get another pet. They traveled a lot and it just didn’t seem fair to them to have an animal.

After the death of her husband, Rose became quite distraught and depressed. Like many who lose a spouse, she struggled emotionally and had little will to live. Her children were very concerned about her well-being, and they felt having a cat in her life again would be a great idea. Her son was determined to find the best match for his mom and found a mature male cat at a shelter. Although she was initially resistant, once Toby arrived, they seemed to become inseparable. The distraction of taking care of Toby and enjoying his company, acted as a support system for Rose as she went through the process of grieving. Recently, she commented to me that Toby was the best cat she’s ever had. He seems to be very perceptive of her emotional needs. Toby is not demanding and often can be seen sitting right by her side in the evenings.

On the other hand, it is not uncommon to see young children seeking solace from their beloved pet in times of discouragement or fear, especially during family disputes (Fine, 2014). Animals provide not only emotional support but also can foster positive physiological changes (such as reduction in blood pressure and heart rate, and decrease levels of stress hormones).

According to the research of Strand (2004), children who have pets in their home often turn to them for comfort during high stress situations such as parental discord. She believes that children use their pet interaction as a buffer, or a self-calming technique to help them cope with stressful environments. Our connections to animals help us navigate through difficult times; pets are also often relied on by people of all ages as an outlet for feelings and emotional refuge (Fine & Eisen, 2016; Melson, 2001). It is not uncommon to hear of people who feel isolated turn to their animals for company or use their pets as an excuse to leave the