Engaging Theology: A Biblical, Historical, and Practical Introduction

By Ben C. Blackwell and R.L. Hatchett

Theology today is faced with increasing amounts of religious and theological pluralism. What is distinctive about Christian theology? Why do these ideas matter? And the biggest question of all: Who cares? Key aspects of orthodox theology are seen as speculative and irrelevant to "authentic" Christianity and to personal spirituality. While not succumbing to the pragmatism of the age, this book shows that key elements of Christian theology ground an integrated worldview and are essential for spiritual formation.

Engaging Theology is an introductory theology textbook that grounds a treatment of standard systematic topics in the wider context of life and practice and shows the relevance of each doctrine to the church. The book treats the essential doctrines of Christian orthodoxy by following the pattern of story, doctrinal exposition, theological relevance, and spiritual relevance:

• Story: Each chapter begins with a brief and engaging account of the historical situation out of which the doctrine arose or where it played an essential role in the development of the church, showing students that orthodox theology matters and introducing them to most of the key theologians in the history of the church.
• Doctrinal Exposition: The heart of the chapter is exposition of key elements of the doctrine, highlighting core and debated elements while clarifying heterodox perspectives. Integrated with the narrative account this section also models the contextualized nature of theology. Each chapter includes biblical, historical, and contemporary views on the issue and notes key figures in the debates and their influence.
• Theological Relevance: While theological relevance is clear throughout each chapter, this section highlights relevance to the modern setting and concerns, including interaction with heterodox and non-Christian faiths. It identifies current theological problems besetting the church and shows how a proper understanding and integration of orthodox theology addresses these problems. It also points to other problems the church is facing for interesting discussion starters.
• Spiritual Relevance: Since orthodox theology has a direct influence on one's own spiritual formation and practice, each chapter concludes with practical encouragements and discussions about how each doctrine can be integrated in one's personal and corporate life.

Engaging Theology is ideal for students and everyday people living in a post Christian era to help them seriously engage with the Christian faith.

 

• Language: English
• Publisher: Zondervan
• Release date: Oct 29, 2019
• ISBN: 9780310092773

Ben C. Blackwell

Ben C. Blackwell (PhD, University of Durham) is associate professor of early Christianity at Houston Baptist University. He has authored a number of essays and articles related to Historical Theology and the New Testament, including Christosis: Engaging Pauline Soteriology with His Patristic Interpreters. He is currently working on new monograph: Participating in the Righteousness of God: Justification in Pauline Theology. He also served as a co-editor for several volumes: Paul and the Apocalyptic Imagination; Reading Romans in Context: Paul and Second Temple Judaism; and Reading Mark in Context: Jesus and Second Temple Judaism.

Book preview

Acknowledgments

At the heart of Christian theology is an interaction with the great tradition. As we participate in this wider conversation, we are especially mindful and grateful for gifted teachers and learners who have enriched our study and guided us within this wider conversation. I (RLH) am indebted to friends and faculty at Dallas Baptist University and Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary. At Southwestern, James Leo Garrett, David Kirkpatrick, and Bert Dominy taught me theology through course work and friendship. I (BCB) have had a wonderful collection of mentors and friends from Ouachita Baptist University, Dallas Theological Seminary, and Durham University. In particular, Scott Duvall, Danny Hays, and Terry Carter at Ouachita, Kent Burghuis, Jeff Bingham, and Scott Horrell at DTS, and John Barclay and Tom Wright at Durham.

We are grateful for our fellow faculty members, past and present, in the Department of Theology and the School of Christian Thought at Houston Baptist University and now Houston Theological Seminary. Our circle here shares an encouraging fellowship and concern for one another. We are grateful for their steady friendship and interest in the project.

This book primarily emerges from our teaching a required undergraduate course titled Christian Theology and Tradition, as well as classes for our majors in systematic and historical theology. The remarkable and wonderful diversity of our students influenced almost every discussion we had about this book, and we are thankful for our students from these courses. The challenge and privilege to teach them has been stimulating; their kindnesses and conversations are greatly appreciated.

Other students, faculty members, and friends deserve thanks for reading portions of the text and sharing substantial feedback. The list includes Jason Maston, Adam Harger, Paul Sloan, Jeremy Greer, Calvin Williams, Nathan Cook, Mike Skelton, Mike Skinner, Cullen Ware, Adam Chaney, Joel Burdeaux, Foye Stanley, Philip Tallon, Derek Hickle, Spencer Jones, and Jade Myers. Additionally, Brian Hébert, Derick Hatch, and Joshua Salas gave special feedback concerning our treatment of world religions. Taylor Choate, our student and research assistant, read numerous sections and offered valuable editing and review.

The project as a whole was supported in various ways from my (BCB) church, Sugar Land Vineyard. We are especially indebted to several from my home group who read the entire manuscript: Pat Dorsey, Beth Wilhelm, and Heather Blackwell. The personal encouragement and support from the group has been life-giving for many years. Another life-giving relationship is that of Bert Waggoner. He not only inspired me to read Charles Taylor in the first place, but he is a model of a pastor-theologian. Bert and his wife, Evelyn, welcomed us into their home as Bert gave feedback from his careful reading. Though he didn’t respond directly to the chapters, my pastor Reagan Waggoner has significantly influenced my theology regarding the kingdom of God.

Our sons, Elam Blackwell and Austin Hatchett respectively, read the entire manuscript and rendered brutally honest observations as well as valuable insights. They substantially improved the project. Additionally, Debbie Hatchett, Amy Hatchett Sims, Ashley Ashcraft, and Amber Reynolds also reviewed portions of the text. Every writing project requires a big sacrifice of time. I (BCB) am grateful and humbled by the support of Heather, Silas, and Elam.

We are also appreciative of Katya Covrett, executive editor for Zondervan Academic, for her enthusiasm for and interest in the project. She and Matthew Estel thoroughly read the manuscript and contributed valuable insight and patience. Joshua Kessler of Zondervan Academic ably provided help in production, support, and publicity for the project. Special thanks goes to Marc Hinds, who worked to make our diagrams ready for print. Our student and assistant Phillip Morrow helped with numerous tasks, most especially creating the index.

Preface for Teachers

After teaching theology for many years, we have learned that those sitting in the classroom and sanctuary alike are disengaged from the doctrines of the church. This disconnection arises for a variety of reasons. Some people come from church movements that are loyal to the Bible but suspicious of tradition and efforts at systematizing ideas. As a result, they see theology as speculative, more like philosophy than an exposition of biblical truth. A more common problem, unfortunately, is that people have not engaged the Bible or the church deeply in the first place. Many are fed a steady diet of sermons about the practicalities of life but see theology as ivory-tower thinking for academics. Many more are nominally tied to the church and see the whole enterprise of Bible and theology as cultural nostalgia better suited for history books. In our diverse context in Houston, those who practice other faith traditions like Hinduism, Islam, and Buddhism comprise a growing part of our community, and they often know little of Christian theology beyond stereotypes. One thing is common among all these diverse groups—Christian theology is disconnected from life to the extent of being irrelevant. Our goal with this book is to address this by giving our readers an approach to theology that is relevant and engaging.

Over the years, we have used a number of fine textbooks from within our evangelical community to help foster theological discussions. These textbooks often assume that their readers are insiders to theological conversations and that they have already bought into the idea that theology matters. To help those who are disconnected to engage theology, we propose beginning and ending in a different way, by showing how theological reflection is embedded deeply in the biblical narrative and in contemporary life, in addition to narrating the traditional content of theology. Drawing from our respective academic disciplines, we bridge the biblical (BCB) and historical (RLH) contexts out of which ecumenical consensus has arisen.

Within this wider ecumenical discussion, we have unique perspectives. That is, we represent Baptist and charismatic evangelical traditions, but we have distinct interests in wider ecumenical concerns. For example, our doctoral studies were generated out of engagement with Roman Catholic biblical interpreters (RLH) and Eastern Orthodox theology (BCB). This ecumenical interest is also spurred by the many theological traditions represented among our students at Houston Baptist University. To engage a theologically diverse population, we follow a mere Christian approach, where the central aspects of the Trinitarian faith expressed in the Nicene Creed guide the book’s progression.¹

We find the contemporary engagement with global theology to be invaluable, but due to the space constraints of the volume, we primarily converse with historical theologies. In areas of traditional orthodoxy, our approach is prescriptive, but at many other points we are more descriptive of the diversity represented in the church. With our desire to foster understanding and discussion between the various Christian traditions today, we attempt to describe the different views impartially in order to allow those who are teaching or learning to focus on your own theological conclusions. This is especially evident in the chapter sections concerning contemporary relevance. Moving beyond one-sentence discussion questions, we give a paragraph or so for key topics. We offer these as kindling for your more expansive treatment.

Of course, we not only have Christian diversity but wider religious diversity in our postmodern world. Based on US News & World Report, our institution, Houston Baptist University, has been the most ethnically diverse Protestant campus in the United States for several years.² That means that we have an equally diverse range of doctrinal, denominational, and faith perspectives among our student body, and that diversity has helped strengthen the preparation of this volume. Accordingly, our primary goal is to cultivate a conversation between these diverse traditions, though obviously our own views will be clear as well. As a result, in addition to traditional Christian perspectives, we also engage the perspectives of divergent Christian groups (such as the Latter-day Saints and Jehovah’s Witnesses) and major world religions (Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism) in each chapter. Again, the scope of the volume limits our treatment of each tradition, and so we intend these sections to be conversation starters.

Perhaps the most unique aspect of the book is the engagement with applied theology. Most theology textbooks are written within and for an academic context. While we surely employ the insights from this context, theology is most at home in the church and in the lives of the believing community. By offering ideas for the practical embodiment of theology, we hope to provide a more holistic approach and to help restore the balance between the head (with the heart) and the hands.

With this kaleidoscopic approach to theology (biblical, historical, and practical), our goal is to help readers learn how relevant and engaging theology is. We hope this volume serves as a valuable tool for your classes that helps move theology beyond abstract ideas to a lived-out reality as students in community engage our living and active God.

NOTES

1. See the introduction (How the Conversation Will Take Place) for fuller details on the specific progression of each chapter.

2. Campus Ethnic Diversity, US News & World Report, www.usnews.com/best-colleges/rankings/regional-universities/campus-ethnic-diversity (accessed April 15, 2019).

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

ENGAGING A CONVERSATION

As you start a book on theology, you might have a spark of interest. You might also come with a bit of hesitancy. Theology might feel a bit foreign because it seems so disengaged from the rest of life. Maybe theology should be reserved for other people, like pastors and seminary professors, not people like you. If you come from a tradition where the Bible is taken seriously, theology may seem too speculative, closer to philosophy than biblical truth. Many more of you do not come from traditions that engaged the Bible deeply, so engaging theology feels even more foreign and a bit daunting. You might stand outside of the Christian tradition altogether, either as a nonreligious person or as a faithful member of another religious tradition. You might only be reading this book as part of a required course. Wherever you are coming from, our goal is to bring theology down from the ivory tower. Our goal is to provide a relevant and engaging introduction to Christian theology.

While obvious to some, others will be unclear about what theology even means. The word derives from the Greek term for God (theos). Medieval theologian Thomas Aquinas captures the heart of the task well: Theology is taught by God, teaches of God, and leads to God.¹ God’s centrality is clear, and for Christians God is not simply a generic god up in the sky but a specific, personal God, who exists as Trinity: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.² Similarly, we do not approach theology in a generic manner. Everyone does theology from a particular vantage point within various religious and historical traditions. For instance, the authors of this book are evangelicals who come out of Baptist and charismatic traditions. These vantage points shape us, but our goal is to provide an ecumenical look into the world of Christian thought and practice.

As part of this ecumenical approach, we will focus on things that unite Christians across traditions, but we will also explore the differences between these traditions. In other words, there will be parts where we are more prescriptive (explaining what the church has historically argued you should believe) and parts where we are more descriptive (explaining the diversity we find in the church without giving preference to one or the other). In the descriptive sections, some of you will just want to know the right answer, but we purposefully do not provide one. Our goal is to give you a starting point for further study and conversation. We follow the model of an early Protestant theologian Rupertus Meldenius: In essentials unity, in non-essentials liberty, and in all things charity.³

When it comes to the essentials of Christian theology, there is no better place to start than the Nicene Creed. This creed is a statement of faith that was agreed upon at the Council of Nicaea in AD 325.⁴ It soon began to serve as the ecumenical confession of faith that unites Christians of all major traditions.⁵ As the SparkNotes of the Bible, this creed summarizes the scope of the biblical narrative from beginning to end, from Genesis to Revelation. It has three articles, or sections, which respectively focus on God as Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit), and it emphasizes God’s triune act of creation, reconciliation, and transformation—God over us, God for us, and God in us.⁶

NICENE CREED (AD 325/381)

We believe in one God,

the Father, the Almighty,

maker of heaven and earth,

of all that is, seen and unseen.

We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ,

the only Son of God,

eternally begotten of the Father,

God from God, Light from Light,

true God from true God,

begotten, not made,

of one Being with the Father;

through him all things were made.

For us and for our salvation

he came down from heaven,

was incarnate from the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary

and became truly human.

For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate;

he suffered death and was buried.

On the third day he rose again

in accordance with the Scriptures;

he ascended into heaven

and is seated at the right hand of the Father.

He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end.

We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life,

who proceeds from the Father [and the Son],

who with the Father and the Son is worshiped and glorified,

who has spoken through the prophets.

We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church.

We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins.

We look for the resurrection of the dead,

and the life of the world to come. Amen.⁷

The creed shows God’s action in the narrative of history. That means that eschatology is at the heart of theology. With eschatology, most people just think in terms of end times, but a holistic eschatology speaks of God’s act to bring salvation to the world through Christ and the Spirit. Through the activity of the Holy Spirit, the kingdom of God is here now, not just when Christ returns. In other words, Christianity is a rescue religion, and that rescue (or salvation) is understood in Trinitarian and eschatological terms. Don’t worry if these concepts are hard to understand; the rest of the book will explore what these ideas mean. Our intent here is to frame theology as a wider narrative with God the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as the main character.

(Im)Practical Theology

By asserting that the Trinity, eschatology, and the creed are the heart of theology, we face the challenge of disconnection again. Most of you reading this (Christian or not) probably had not read the Nicene Creed before, and you have done all right without it. Perhaps your theology is shaped by a different narrative. (Everyone has a functional theology—a narrative they live by—even if they would not call it a theology.) Maybe talking about God as Trinity seems as important as determining the number of angels that can dance on the head of a pin. While the Trinity is central to creedal theology, numerous cultural factors influence readers to reject the creed’s centrality and key ideas. One major factor is our culture’s rejection of external authorities (like tradition) in favor of personal experience. For instance, many today would describe themselves as spiritual but not religious. For most, that means that they have rejected traditional forms of worship and practice, but they still seek spiritual experiences. Without the boundaries of traditional forms, these spiritual experiences can come in various (often nontraditional) ways. Many now see more ancient worship practices (i.e., liturgy), such as using the Nicene Creed or taking weekly communion, as not helping but hindering worship because the goal of worship has become having a personal and authentic feeling of connection with God. Religion and its cousin theology, then, are seen as a roadblock to being spiritual. But can you truly be spiritual without a connection to the Trinity and the ideas expressed in the Creed?

The question of what makes an experience authentically spiritual is not new. One of the longest letters in the New Testament, 1 Corinthians, is an extended attempt by the apostle Paul to refine the Corinthians’ understanding of spirituality. Paul’s perspective undergirds the thrust of the whole book: the most authentically Christian experiences of God are Trinitarian, and these Trinitarian experiences fundamentally shape the way we engage one another and the world around us.

In 1 Corinthians 1–4, for example, Paul addresses the division and infighting that had taken over the church. Surely, you might say, the doctrine of the Trinity cannot apply to the problems they were having. However, when we consider the clear action of the Father, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit, we see how Trinitarian theology is at the heart of Paul’s response. After detailing the issue of division (1 Cor 1:10–17), Paul’s first point is a distinctly theological one: God’s wisdom is most fully revealed in the foolishness of the cross of Christ (1:18–31). If you want to know the Father’s heart, you must look at Jesus, particularly his willingness to suffer for others. You cannot truly have God without a suffering Jesus. This is not ivory-tower theology for Paul. If Jesus reveals what God is like, then we too should live for others rather than dominating them (2:1–5).⁸ According to Paul, if the Corinthians truly understood Trinitarian theology, they would not treat each other this way. Not stopping at the Father and Son, Paul then makes an extended appeal to the Spirit: those who are led by the Spirit will follow the wisdom of God displayed by the crucified Christ (2:6–3:4). Spirit people will be cross people, sacrificing themselves for one another rather than trying to control and best one another.

The theology of the Trinity is inherently practical for Paul: if you understand who God is and how he works, then the link between theology, obedience, and flourishing becomes clearer. Do you see the difference between Paul’s theology and being spiritual but not religious? Paul’s spirituality is distinctly bound by the nature of the God we are engaging. They cannot be spiritual without the Spirit, nor can they be Christians without Christ. The Corinthians are reminded that they cannot be Christian without committing daily to the crucified and resurrected Christ. Paul also reminds them that they cannot be spiritual without being connected to the Spirit, who leads them on the path of Christ. Our goal for this book is to explore the intersection of all sides of theology—the biblical narrative that communicates the story of God, the systematic exploration of theology via the triune lens of the Nicene Creed, and the challenge of practicing faith.

Practicing the Faith

In speaking of the creed, we are drawing on the distinct emphasis on right belief within Christianity. Accordingly, orthodox perspectives are distinguished from ones that are heterodox.⁹ The term orthodox derives from the combination of two terms: ortho (right) and doxa (glory/worship). Thus orthodoxy is built on a relationship with God in which we rightly approach him in worship. Right beliefs do not merely give us cognitive information; they orient us to God in a manner of worship because worship, like all relationships, is based on a personal encounter.

While worship is the formative and normative context for doing theology, theology often is taught and studied in academic settings. This distinct setting has disconnected theology from the practical realities of life. Almost no theology textbooks mention how to practice the ideas presented there, besides perhaps noting a prayer or hymn at the end of a chapter. Our book works from the idea that humans are loving creatures, not just knowing or believing creatures.¹⁰ Accordingly, when we equate doctrines only with ideas, it does not cohere with how God made us. Rather, the interconnection between doctrine and its practice shapes, forms, and motivates us.¹¹

For this reason, proper belief about Jesus leads to, even entails, a life of obedience to God through Jesus by the Spirit. In short, orthodoxy cannot be separated from orthopraxy, or right action.¹² If someone struggles with obedience to Christ, this demonstrates not only a weak will but a deficient theology about who God is and how he acts. People can say they believe all sorts of things, but their actions more clearly demonstrate their belief system. Heteropraxy reveals heterodoxy. Given this manner of interaction between faith and action, this book explicitly unites the discussion of orthodoxy with orthopraxy.¹³

The Nicene Creed may seem like a stale and dated list of theological facts, but it speaks to a living faith. It arose out of ancient baptismal practices and the various expressions of the early church’s rule of faith, which narrates the story of God. The resulting creed was not just a statement of faith (We believe . . .) but a baptismal confession. It is a statement of commitment to obedience to the God represented in the creedal narrative. That is, We believe in . . . not just We believe that . . . Just as baptism is not merely an individualistic event but one that engages the whole community, so too we engage theology as a part of a historical community that has been holding this conversation for the past two thousand years. As a result, we will regularly introduce you to members of the family who have important stories to tell or perspectives to add to the discussion.

HOW THE CONVERSATION WILL TAKE PLACE

Our journey to engage theology will take place through conversations with different partners. As an introductory textbook for Christian theology, we ground topics in the biblical narrative and substantially engage debates and practices relevant to the life of the church. Accordingly, each chapter follows the pattern of story, doctrinal exposition, theological relevance, and spiritual practices.

Story. Each chapter begins with a brief and engaging account of a key figure in church history whose personal story highlights a key aspect of the doctrine at hand. Their stories help show why theology matters, and over the course of the book you will be introduced to many of the key theologians in the history of the church.

Doctrinal Exposition. The heart of each chapter is an exposition of key elements of the doctrine, with particular attention to its Trinitarian basis. Focusing on areas of ecumenical agreement, we highlight core and debated elements while clarifying heterodox perspectives. We ground each area in the narrative of Scripture (not just biblical references) and then address historical and contemporary developments.

Contemporary Theological Relevance. While theology’s relevance is clear throughout each chapter, this section highlights its relevance to modern concerns, including interaction with heterodox and non-Christian faiths. It identifies current theological problems besetting the church and shows how a proper understanding and integration of orthodox theology begins to address these problems.

Practicing the Faith. Since orthodox theology should have a direct influence on one’s spiritual formation and practice, each chapter concludes with practical encouragement and discussion about how each doctrine can be integrated into one’s personal and communal life.

INTRODUCING OUR CONVERSATION PARTNERS

Christians from the History of the Church

While today almost all orthodox Christians fit into one of three confessions (Protestant, Roman Catholic, or Eastern Orthodox), these traditions are built upon centuries of debates about how best to pursue the faith handed down from Jesus. Accordingly, we will not just read the Bible or debate with present-day Christians, but we will engage in a conversation about theology across the spectrum of church history. See figure 1.1 for a basic map of the interconnections between the different groups, which attempts to show that geographic as well as doctrinal influences have shaped the development of Christianity. (Figure 1.2 adds more key events and people that helped shape this map.)

FIGURE 1.1: SIMPLE MAP OF CHURCH HISTORY

FIGURE 1.1: SIMPLE MAP OF CHURCH HISTORY

Patristic Era. This time period runs roughly from AD 100 to 500, and geographically it covers both the Latin West and the Greek East. The term patristic derives from the Greek and Latin words for father (pater), so this period describes the time of the fathers and mothers of the church. During this period the central message and doctrines of Christianity, such as the Trinity, Christology, and pneumatology, were refined through debates and councils. The end of the patristic era is marked by the fall of Rome in the West in AD 476 and the rise in dominance of the (Eastern Roman) Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople (now Istanbul). Even though many key leaders and theologians of this age are considered saints by the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic confessions, it is anachronistic to say patristic theologians were Eastern Orthodox or Roman Catholic since those distinctions did not exist during this time.

The Eastern Church

Byzantine Era. This period runs roughly from AD 500 to 1500, and geographically it pertains to the area of eastern Europe under the influence of the Byzantine Empire. While the Greek-speaking church was the cultural and theological center of the era, a plurality of languages and traditions flourished, as with the Slavic countries (central/ eastern Europe and Russia). The Greek church began to have political and theological disputes with the Latin-speaking church after the patristic era, leading to disparate identities within the church. Eventually the two sides suffered an official break (excommunication) in 1054, known as the Great Schism. The end of the Byzantine era is often marked by the fall of Constantinople in 1453 to the Ottoman Turks.

FIGURE 1.2: DETAILED MAP OF CHURCH HISTORY

FIGURE 1.2: DETAILED MAP OF CHURCH HISTORY

Eastern Orthodox. The Byzantine church (with its link to Greek patristic theology) serves as the formative influence for the Eastern Orthodox tradition. As Orthodox theology spread over central/eastern Europe and Russia, the church maintained its influence by encouraging cultural and linguistic diversity. Many years later, Orthodox influence was directly challenged by the radically antireligious pressures of communist ideology in the twentieth century. The ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople is a central figure in the Orthodox church but does not have central authority like the pope; rather, the Orthodox communion is represented today by autonomous but cooperating ecclesial groups, which are often but not always demarcated by national boundaries. Central examples of this confession are the Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, and Antiochian Orthodox communions.

The Western Church

Medieval Era (i.e., Middle Ages). This period runs roughly from AD 500 to 1500, and geographically it pertains primarily to western Europe and the Latin-speaking church under the authority of the pope. In distinction to the diversity of leaders and languages represented in the Byzantine churches, the medieval church focused on one language (Latin) and one leader (the pope). Thus after the Great Schism the medieval church came to be identified as the Roman Catholic Church.¹⁴ This period featured regular shifts in the balance of power between European royalty and the popes. The crusades are an example of the blended nature of political and spiritual goals at this time. Monastic movements regularly arose to bring reform and renewal to the church. The rough end point for the Middle Ages is 1500, which coincides with the effects of the Renaissance and of the Protestant Reformation which began in 1517.

Roman Catholic. The Roman Catholic Church (RCC) is a fluid continuation of the medieval church, although the influences of the Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation, and the Counter-Reformation (expressed through the Council of Trent, 1545–63) shaped the direction of the church. Although there are many movements within Roman Catholicism (e.g., the Dominican, Franciscan, Jesuit, and Carmelite monastic orders), they share a common confessional and ecclesiastical tradition. While predominant in southern Europe, the RCC continues to be shaped by the European colonization of the Americas since the majority of Catholics now reside there. There have been many important councils, but the Second Vatican Council (Vatican II, 1962–65) was especially significant. It allowed, and even encouraged, the Mass and Bible reading in the language of local worshipers rather than Latin, which had been previously required. Other changes include the provision of both wine and bread for communion to the laity and greater ecumenical engagement with the Orthodox and Protestant traditions.

Protestant. In response to disagreements over theology and practice within the RCC, a reform movement arose in 1517—now called the Protestant Reformation. The original movement was led by people like Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli. After meeting resistance from the RCC, these leaders helped form autonomous church movements that eventually formed into separate national churches, denominations, and independent (nondenominational) churches. While having differences of opinion over theology and practice, these denominations and churches generally agree on their protest against the RCC, hence the name Protestant. The Protestant church consists of a huge variety of groups and subgroups. The main groups include Baptist, Methodist, Pentecostal, Presbyterian, Anglican/Episcopalian, and nondenominational traditions. Perhaps the fastest growing religious movement in history is the global adoption of Pentecostal and charismatic theology, which arose around 1900 and crosses denominational lines, even influencing Catholicism.

We have entered an era of the global church, and the values of major theological traditions (Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant) are constantly interacting in new and diverse cultural expressions. Our volume is focused on historical discussions, but as a next step we highly encourage you to explore the wonderful depth of Christian faith and practice in Africa, Asia, and South America.¹⁵

Cultural and Philosophical Influences

In addition to these church-focused categories, two major cultural and philosophical movements have influenced Europe and North America: modernism (epitomized by the Enlightenment; c. 1650–1900) and postmodernism (1900–present).

Enlightenment/Modernism. The Enlightenment dates more specifically to 1650–1800, but its influence runs strongly until the postmodernism of the early to mid-1900s. Modernism is characterized by an eminent trust in objective reason, individual autonomy, and the scientific method, with a resulting extreme distrust of external authorities, whether monarchs or religious tradition. Ultimately, this led to the increasing influence of secularism.

Postmodernism. As a response to the (unfounded) optimism of the Enlightenment, postmodernism rejected the ideas that reason could both escape human limitations and rule in every human endeavor. Rather than focusing on universal truths, postmodernism values the perspective of individuals and particular communities. Thus pluralism, tolerance, and relativism are key values.

Modernism and postmodernism have had an enormous influence on the West, which is the primary context for our study of theology and that of our students, so we regularly attend to issues raised by these movements.

Other Christian-Adjacent Traditions and World Religions

Most discussions of Christian theology are set as in-house debates like those between Protestants and Catholics, Baptists and Presbyterians, or Arminians and Calvinists. We too will examine these debates, but when you narrow your focus to certain disputes, the importance of issues can be distorted. I (BCB) remember having several debates in high school and college about whether you could lose your salvation, as if that was the central aspect of Christian theology and therefore a reason for division. Having developed a wider perspective, I now realize that this (still important but internally focused) argument missed the huge amount of common ground that I shared with my dialogue partners.

Given the growth of religious pluralism in our contemporary setting, Christians must discover not only their own faith but others’ as well. This has the dual benefit of building bridges for new friendships, while also revealing to Christians where their commonalities lie in distinction to other perspectives. There are many good resources to help foster understanding of other faith traditions, and we realize that our brief treatment is inadequate. Nevertheless, we would like to foster further conversation by placing these initial discussions side by side.

In each chapter we will discuss Christian traditions that stand outside of historic orthodoxy (Mormonism, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and deism) and the major world religions (Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism) according to the topic at hand. While the offshoots from Christianity often follow traditional theological structures, other religions do not necessarily arrange their religious perspectives according to the categories provided by Christian doctrine. We attempt to do our best to note this and facilitate your understanding of these traditions in conversation with our approach to Christianity. A number of other significant religions are worthy of study beyond these we approach. With our space constraints we limited ourselves to those that are widely dispersed.

Before we address these various traditions, it is important to note the distinction between the official tenets of a faith tradition and the lived-out experience of its adherents. Every religion has centralizing tendencies, whether from an agreed upon institutional leadership or an informal confluence of traditions. These centralizing tendencies often result in defined beliefs, sanctioned practices, official pronouncements, and so on. Importantly, the average adherent to a particular religious tradition may or may not know of these boundary-marking statements or even follow them if they know of them. Religions are often based around religious texts, so adherents often have greater affiliation with the texts (or the leaders behind the texts) than the contemporary institutional claims to authoritatively interpret and hand down the texts. Thus, when we encounter a religion, we encounter it at two levels: at the professional level (of scholar or priest) and at the level of common experience and practice. In our short summaries, we are giving the standard version of the religion as generally held and promoted by professionals within their respective orthodoxies. At the same time, every religion has cultural and regional distinctives that are then engaged in various ways by laypersons, who are the vast majority of adherents. This everyday experience by nonprofessionals is called folk religion.

Many people leave high religion to the professionals (priests, pastors, imams, monks, etc.) and engage religion as much as a cultural phenomenon as it is something that relates to transcendent realities. Accordingly, folk religion is often shaped by the practical realities of life. For instance, someone following Buddhism might have a shrine at home but only irregular engagements with a temple, such as during festivals, whereas someone else might have frequent engagement with temple practice. At the same time, consistent practice does not entail specific beliefs or orthodoxy according to the main standards of a religion. In expressions of folk religion, people are often quite syncretistic, engaging in practices and beliefs deemed explicitly unorthodox. Think of the number of Christians, for example, who also read horoscopes. What we briefly summarize or what you study in a religion’s scriptures may or may not reflect someone’s experience of that religion. The best thing you can do is have coffee or a meal with someone who practices the tradition to see how their experience matches the treatment here. Just as the Christian doctrines we discuss are not represented in each church, so also the same, if not greater, diversity appears in other religious traditions. With this in mind, we will now introduce our conversation partners.

Christianity and Other Christian Traditions. For the Christian traditions outside of traditional orthodoxy, we focus on the largest two denominations, namely Mormonism and Jehovah’s Witnesses, as well as (functional) deism. These traditions accept the Protestant Bible and use many of the same terms and concepts as historical Christianity, though they have differences that we will explore along the way. Mormonism, or the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-day Saints (LDS), arose in the early to mid-1800s through the ministry of Joseph Smith. The easiest way to engage Mormon theology is through the website of the Latter-day Saints, and the text Gospel Principles gives an accessible summary of the key tenets of their theology.¹⁶ Jehovah’s Witnesses arose in the late 1800s through the ministry of Charles Taze Russell. Their official website contains a variety of information, among which the page What Do Jehovah’s Witnesses Believe? in the FAQs gives a good though brief primer.¹⁷ Unlike Mormonism and Jehovah’s Witnesses, deism does not represent an organized religious group, but its theology has been hugely influential. Arising from the time of the Enlightenment (c. seventeenth and eighteenth centuries), deism is a view of God that emphasizes his (and other spiritual beings’) disengagement from the world. While this view of God was initially tied to liberal Protestantism, the influence of deism has been widely documented among traditional Christian churches; hence we treat functional deism. In this view, God’s distance results in a mechanized view of the universe and a greater emphasis on personal effort.

We turn now to the major world religions. As we discuss some orienting perspectives within the other world religions, you always need to keep two key caveats in mind: (1) every religion has many interpretations and subtraditions, and (2) many world religions prioritize orthopraxy over orthodoxy. Therefore, as we focus on the ideas and doctrines of these religions, we are only capturing a partial aspect of their religious tradition.

Judaism. Judaism is considered the first Abrahamic faith because the Jewish nation came from Abraham (c. 1800 BC) and his descendants through Jacob (i.e., Israel). The story of the Jewish people is long and varied. After events such as the Babylonian exile (586 BC) and later the Roman destruction of the temple in AD 70, Jews spread out over the Middle East and Europe. This plurality