The Life & Legend of Cesare Borgia

By M. G. Scarsbrook

Described by some as ‘a rebel against Christ’ who deserved to die, Cesare Borgia is arguably the most infamous member of the notorious Borgia family. His brilliant mind, ruthless ambition, and insatiable desires have inspired writers, artists, and philosophers for centuries – most notably Machiavelli’s ideal ruler in ‘The Prince’.

This book gathers together all the crucial information needed for a study into Cesare's dramatic life, including a detailed timeline, a biographical profile, an extensive description of his life in Rome, and a discussion of the Borgia family's legendary connection to poison.

INCLUDED INSIDE:
- The Life of Cesare Borgia by Rafael Sabatini
- The Prince by Niccolò Machiavelli
- The Borgias by Alexander Dumas (from 'Celebrated Crimes')
- Lucretia Borgia by Ferdinand Gregorovius
- Encyclopaedia Britannica articles (11th edition) on Cesare Borgia and Lucrezia Borgia
- Lucrezia Borgia, libretto by Felice Romani for the Opera by Gaetano Donizetti (in Italian)

• Language: English
• Publisher: Lulu.com
• Release date: Jan 4, 2013
• ISBN: 9781291274028

M. G. Scarsbrook

M. G. Scarsbrook is the author of four novels and the editor of several literary collections. Since 2011 his books have sold more than 40,000 copies worldwide and been translated into five languages. English editions of his work are sold in paperback, eBook, and audiobook formats at all major online bookstores.

Book preview

SCARSBROOK

THE LIFE OF CESARE BORGIA

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TIMELINE

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1431

– Rodrigo Borgia is born.

1442

– Vannozza dei Cattanei is born.

1455

– Rodrigo’s cousin, Cardinal Alonso de Borja, becomes Pope Calixtus III.

1456

– Rodrigo becomes a Cardinal.

1458

– Pope Calixtus dies. Rodrigo continues his climb to power, buys a key papal fortress outside of Rome, and lives like a prince with 113 servants.

1473

– Rodrigo takes Vannozza as his mistress.

1474

– Vannozza marries Domenico di Rignano, an elderly lawyer and goes to live at the Piazza Pizzo di Merlo.

1475

13 September – Cesare is born to Vannozza and Rodrigo (but is legally the son of Domenico di Rignano).

1476

– Domenico di Rignano dies.

– Giovanni (Juan I) is born, (legally acknowledged by Rodrigo as his own).

1480

18 April – Lucrezia is born at the fortress of Subiaco, near Rome.

– Charlotte d’Albret, Cesare’s future wife, is born in Navarre.

1482

– Geoffredo is born.

– Vannozza marries Giorgio San Croce; Rodrigo finishes his affair with her.

1483

– Cesare, Lucrezia, Juan, and Geoffredo leave Vannozza’s care and are raised by Rodrigo’s cousin Adriana de Mila at the Palazzo Orsini on Monte Giordano.

1488

– Juan becomes Duke of Gandia. Despite Cesare being the eldest son, his illegitimate status prevents him from assuming official titles. Henceforth, Cesare is reputed to be extremely jealous of his brother.

1489

– Cesare attends the University of Perugia to study law. Later, he moves to the University of Pisa to study under the famous jurist Filippo Decio, gaining a degree in canon and civil law. He is considered to be highly intelligent by his tutors.

1491

– Cesare becomes Bishop of Pamplona and is groomed for a life in the church.

1492

26 August – Rodrigo Borgia takes formal possession of the papacy in Rome, changing his birth name to the regnal name Alexander VI.

1493

2 February – Lucrezia (13yrs old) is betrothed to Giovanni Sforza (26 yrs old), the Lord of Pesaro and Count of Contignola.

12 June – Lucrezia is married to Giovanni.

– Alexander becomes interested in making an alliance with the Aragon family.

– Juan is married into the House of Aragon (Princess Maria Enriquez) and takes possession of Gandia in Spain.

– Cesare is elevated to Cardinal of Valencia.

– Cesare is officially recognized as Alexander’s son in a secret Papal Bull. Thenceforth, he becomes one of his father’s closest advisors at the papal court. However, he is less renowned for his ecclesiastical abilities than for his skill as a hunter, his love of extravagant clothing, and his numerous romantic liaisons at court.

1494

January – King of Naples dies.

March – Alexander decides to invest the son of the King of Naples (Alfonso II) with the Neapolitan crown, rather than Charles VIII of France. The Borgias are now allied with Naples, the enemy of Milan and the Sforzas. Rome becomes dangerous for Lucrezia’s husband, Giovanni Sforza.

– France invades Italy, helped by Ludovico Sforza who grants the French safe passage through Milan.

– the Orsini family betray Alexander and support the French, providing French forces with the use of their family castles across Italy.

31 December – Charles VIII and the French army enter Rome. Alexander retreats to safety at Castel Sant’Angelo.

1495

– Alexander promises to support the French; Charles VIII leaves for Naples and takes Cesare with him to ensure Alexander’s continued allegiance.

– Cesare tricks the French, escapes their custody, and returns to Rome.

January – Alfonso II of Naples abdicates and passes his throne to Ferdinand II.

February – France occupies Naples.

31 March – Alexander forms the League of Venice (comprising of Milan, Venice, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire) against the French.

6 July – the League defeat France at the Battle of Fornovo; Charles VIII retreats from Italy.

1496

Summer – the Borgia family are reunited (Juan returns from Spain).

– Juan is named Gonfalonier of the Church and invested with the standard and baton of Captain General of the Papal Army.

– Juan and Guidobaldo of Urbino launch a campaign against the Orsini family (revenge for French betrayal).

7 September – Ferdinand II of Naples dies; Frederick IV of Naples becomes King.

– Juan’s campaign starts to founder (he loses a long siege at the Orsini fortress of Bracciano).

1497

January – the Papal Army is defeated at the battle of Soriano. The campaign against the Orsinis completely fails.

8 January – Virginio Orsini dies (probably poisoned) in the Castel dell’Ovo in Naples.

February – Alexander is forced to make peace with the Orsinis (who now control the Roman Campagna).

March – Lucrezia’s husband, Giovanni Sforza, panics and flees Rome for Pesaro. Alexander starts divorce proceedings (he now desires an alliance with Naples).

4 June – Lucrezia escapes the authority of her family in Rome and flees to the Dominican convent of San Sisto.

– Lucrezia possibly receives visits from Pedro ‘Perotto’ Calderon, a papal servant.

– Lucrezia testifies at divorce proceedings; submits to an examination by a midwife, thereby proving that the marriage to Giovanni was never consummated (the only legal grounds for divorce).

– Juan is given a duchy made from the cities of Benevente, Terracina, and Pontecorvo.

14 June – Juan Borgia is last seen alive.

15 June – Papal soldiers search Rome for Juan.

16 June – Eyewitness reports that a body was dumped in the Tiber; at midday, the Tiber is searched and Juan’s body is found; at 6pm, Juan is buried. Rumours soon spread that Cesare is responsible for his brother’s death.

6 July – Alexander halts the official investigation into Juan’s murder.

– Giovanni Sforza protests the divorce from Lucrezia, but eventually relents when he is allowed to keep the dowry. The marriage is soon dissolved.

– 17 cases of syphilis break out in the Papal Court; Cesare becomes infected. Afterwards, he occasionally wears a mask over his face to cover outbreaks of pustules.

1498

8 February – Cesare attacks ‘Perotto’ at the Vatican.

14 February – the bodies of Perotto and Panthasilea (a female papal servant in the service of Lucrezia), are found drowned in the Tiber. Cesare is again rumoured to be responsible.

March – Lucrezia possibly gives birth to a child; at the same time, the mysterious boy ‘infans Romanus’ is born to either Alexander or Cesare and an unknown woman.

7 April – Charles VIII dies and Louis XII inherits the throne of France (he soon threatens war with both Naples and Milan).

15 July – Alfonso of Aragon (17yrs old), Duke of Bisceglie, arrives in Rome and officially meets the Borgias.

21 July – Lucrezia and Alfonso are married.

– Alexander becomes interested in helping Louis of France (who wishes the Pope to annul his marriage). Alexander also starts to turn against King Frederick in Naples (who is backed by Spain), since Spain and Naples won’t support Cesare’s proposed marriage to Frederick IV’s daughter, Carlotta. In contrast, France will agree to support the marriage, since Carlotta is at the French court. Naples encourages the Orsinis and Colonna to unite against the Pope.

17 August – Cesare relinquishes his cardinalate (an unprecedented event in Papal history), and on the same day he becomes Duke of Valentinois under Louis XII. From this he derives the nickname ‘Il Valentino’.

1 October – Cesare departs for the French court.

– Spanish ambassadors arrive at the Papal court and argue with Alexander.

1499

February – Lucrezia suffers a miscarriage.

10 May – Cesare marries Charlotte d’Albret, sister to John III, King of Navarre.

23 May – a courier arrives at the Vatican with news of Cesare’s marriage to Charlotte d’Albret.

2 August – Alfonso flees Rome and goes to Naples (as do other pro-Spanish allies of the Borgias). Specifically, he goes to the Colonna fortress at Genazzano.

– Alexander gives Lucrezia the governorship of Spoleto and Foligno.

– Alfonso and Lucrezia are reunited in Spoleto.

25 September – Alexander gives Lucrezia the governorship of Nepi.

11 October – Louis XII invades Milan with Cesare in the ranks.

14 October – Lucrezia gives birth to a son with Alfonso (Rodrigo).

– Alexander takes over direct control of many papal states on the grounds they have not paid the census.

– Cesare’s first Romagna campaign; he captures Imola and Forli and Pesaro (Caterina Sforza is captured at Forli).

1500

– Jubilee year in Rome.

– Cesare’s daughter is born, Louise Borgia, Duchess of Valentinois (1500–1553).

– Alexander campaigns against the Caetanis and captures Sermoneta. Lucrezia is given governorship over the town.

February – Cesare returns to Rome.

29 March – Alexander gives Cesare the Golden Rose and invests him with the insignia of Gonfalonier and Captain General of the Church (the honors once held by Juan).

10 April – France defeats Milan and the Sforzas lose all power (French attention then turns to Naples and war with the Aragons).

June – a whirlwind strikes the Vatican, kills several people, and injures Alexander.

15 July – three hours after sunset, Alfonso is attacked outside St. Peter’s Basilica on his way back to his palazzo. He survives the assault. Immediately, Lucrezia barricades herself and Alfonso in the Torre Borgia, guarded by a watch of 16 men. She tries to nurse him back to health over the next few weeks.

18 August – Alfonso is murdered (strangled by Cesare’s men).

September – Lucrezia is sent to Nepi to mourn out of sight (Alexander is already planning her next marriage).

2 October – Cesare starts the second stage of his conquest of the Romagna, leaving Rome with 10,000 men.

1501

– Cesare captures Faenza, Piombino, and Elba.

– Cesare and French army sack Capua and seize Naples.

– Alexander seizes the Orsini family’s possessions.

30 October – Cesare and Alexander hold the infamous ‘Ballet of the Chestnuts’ at Palazzo Apostolico, inviting over 50 courtesans to attend.

30 December – Lucrezia marries Alfonso d’Este, heir to the Dukedom of Ferrara (the Borgias make an alliance in the buffer region between the Romagna and unfriendly Venice).

– Alexander grants Lucrezia control over the Vatican and Holy See for 4 days, while he is absent from Rome.

1502

– Cesare’s third Romagna campaign; he conquers Urbino (without a shot being fired) and captures Camerino. During this time he meets Niccolò Machiavelli and also hires Leonardo da Vinci as military architect and engineer.

– the French and Spanish fight over Naples.

September – Alexander accepts parentage of the ‘infans Romanus’ in a secret Papal Bull.

31 December – Cesare’s condottieri conspire against him. He traps and arrests the condottieri at Sinigaglia (much to Machiavelli’s admiration). The men are swiftly executed.

1503

– the French army is defeated at Seminara and Cerignola (southern Italy).

6 August – Cesare and Alexander attend a dinner at the villa of Cardinal Adriano da Corneto; they possibly contract an illness or suffer poisoning.

12 August – Cesare and Alexander both fall seriously ill with a mysterious illness.

18 August – Alexander dies from the illness, Cesare slowly recovers but is incapacitated for a lengthy period.

– Within 2 days, the House of Orsini start to regain control of Rome.

– Within a week, the deposed tyrants of the Romagna challenge Borgia command of several towns in the region.

October – Pope Pius II is elected, but dies 26 days later. Pope Julius II is then elected; he restores moral respectability to the Vatican and ushers in the Golden Age of Rome in which much rebuilding is undertaken. The House of Borgia quickly falls from power. Julius II betrays Cesare and imprisons him. Cesare soon escapes and flees to Naples.

1504

– French army surrenders at Gaeta.

– Venetians advance in the Romagna.

– Cesare loses his title of Duke of Valentinois. He is taken prisoner again near Perugia, moved to Spain, and imprisoned at Chinchilla. All his lands are assumed by Julius II.

1505

– Lucrezia becomes Duchess of Ferrara.

– Cesare is transferred to the dungeons at the fortress of Medina del Campo (Castillo de La Mota).

1506

– Cesare escapes Medina del Campo and flees to Navarre. King Jean III of Navarre places him in charge of a small army.

1507

12 March – Cesare is killed in battle (with the rebellious Count of Beaumonte’s troops) at the siege of Viana in Navarre.

– Cesare is buried in Viana in a tomb beneath the altar of the Church of Santa Maria. The epitaph on his tomb reads:

‘Here upon this scant spot of earth

Lies he whom all the earth once feared,

He who in his hand once bore

Mankind’s fate of peace or war.

O thou who seekest things worthy of praise

If thou wouldst praise the worthiest

Cease thy journey here.’

1508

– Lucrezia gives birth to the heir of Ferrara, Ercole II.

1510

– Lucrezia acts as governor of Ferrara.

1513

– Machiavelli publishes ‘The Prince’ (inspired by Cesare’s leadership), considered the most influential political work of all time.

1514

11 March – Charlotte de Albret dies at the Chateau of La Motte-Feuilly. She is buried in the convent of the Annonciades at Bourges.

1518

– Vannozza dei Cattanei dies, leaving her money to orphans, a hospital, and pious communities. She is buried with the honor of a cardinal at the church of Santa Maria del Popolo.

1519

24 June – Lucrezia dies in Ferrara from fever after childbirth.

1537

– Cesare’s tomb is destroyed by the Bishop of Calahorra, and his remains are transferred to an unconsecrated site outside the church.

2007

– 500 years later, the Archbishop of Pamplona, Fernando Sebastian Aguilar, permits Cesare’s remains to be moved back inside the Church of Santa Maria in Viana.

SOURCES

Alexander, VI (1431-1503). Encyclopedia of World Biography. Detroit: Gale, 1998. Gale World History In Context. Web. 1 Feb. 2011.

Borgia, Cesare, Duc De Valentinois. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Jan. 2012.

Borgia, Lucrezia, Duchess of Ferrara (1480-1519). Encyclopedia of World Biography. Detroit: Gale, 1998. Gale World History In Context. Web. 1 Feb. 2011.

Bradford, Sarah. Lucrezia Borgia: Life, Love and Death In Renaissance Italy. New York: Viking, 2004.

Cesare Borgia. Encyclopedia of World Biography. Detroit: Gale, 1998. Gale World History In Context. Web. 1 Feb. 2011.

Cesare Borgia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. January 25, 2012.

Cloulas, Ivan. The Borgias. Trans. Gilda Roberts. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1985.

Erlanger, Rachel. Lucrezia Borgia: A Biography. New York: Hawthorn Books, 1978.

Haslip, Joan. Lucrezia Borgia: A Study. London: Cassel & Co. Ltd., 1953.

In Search Of History: The Borgias. Narr. David Ackroyd. Prod. Deborah Blum. History Channel, A&E Home Video, 1997.

Lucrezia Borgia. Historic World Leaders. Gale, 1994. Gale World History In Context. Web. 1 Feb. 2011.

Moore, Malcom. The Rehabilitation of Cesare Borgia. The Telegraph, Jan 23 2007.

CESARE BORGIA: A PROFILE

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Origin of Name

Cesare is an Italian form of the Latin name Caesar, derived from the ancient roman Julius Caesar. The name held great importance for Cesare Borgia – indeed, he was so inspired by the fame, power, and military achievements of his namesake that he used Julius Caesar as a role model for his own ambitions. He even adopted the motto Either Caesar or nothing.

Birth

Date: 13 September, 1475

Location: Rome

Father: Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia

Mother: Vannozza dei Cattanei

Exact records of Cesare’s birth are incomplete, leading to various disputes over the exact year (some scholars give the year as 1476). Beyond this, historians all agree that Cesare was born in Rome to Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia and Vannozza dei Cattanei, his mistress. Cesare was Rodrigo’s firstborn son, and as such would normally have been the heir to the Borgia dynasty. However, because Vannozza was married to another man at the time of Cesare’s birth (her husband was the elderly lawyer Domenico di Rignano), Cesare couldn’t legally be declared as Rodrigo’s child. This illegitimate status would haunt Cesare for many years to come.

Regarding his cultural heritage, the House of Borgia was of Spanish origin, based in Valencia, and became a prominent political force during the 1400’s. The family’s rise to power was started by Alonso Borgia (1378-1458) who first became Bishop of Valencia, and then was elected Pope Callixtus III in 1455. Cesare’s father, Rodrigo, was also born in Valencia and spoke Catalan as his primary language. All of Cesare’s initial ecclesiastical honors were bestowed at the Cathedral of Valencia.

Death

Date: 12 March 1507 (aged 31 yrs)

Location: Viana, Kingdom of Navarre

Cause: Killed in battle while commanding the King of Navarre’s troops against rebels

Burial Place: Church of Santa Maria, Viana, Spain

By the time of his death, Cesare was a highly notorious nobleman, his life surrounded by many tales of murder, incest, betrayal, cruelty, debauchery, and extravagance. This multitude of sins meant that his burial inside the church at Viana was a contentious issue. In 1527 the Bishop of Calahorra visited the town and declared that Cesare, despite being the son of a Pope, was not deserving of burial in holy grounds and should be removed immediately. Henceforth, Cesare’s tomb was quickly demolished and his body was exhumed and taken to unhallowed ground where his remains would be trampled on by men and beasts.

Until last century, Cesare was banished to an unmarked grave in a cobbled street in Viana. On the night of his death, local legend even stated that his vengeful ghost would roam the streets, seeking retaliation for the injustice, and many locals would avoid the area whenever possible. However, in 1945 the remains were accidentally unearthed by roadwork and Cesare’s body was removed to Viana’s town hall in a silver casket. Nevertheless, the Roman Catholic church still refused to grant him a holy burial, and so Cesare’s body was once again laid in unconsecrated grounds beneath a marble plaque.

In 2007, after decades of petitions from locals in Viana sympathetic to Cesare’s undignified burial, the Archbishop of Pamplona finally acquiesced on the issue. The church of Santa Maria stated: We have nothing against the transfer of his remains. Whatever he may have done in life, he deserves to be forgiven now. Thus, five hundred years after Cesare’s death, his body was at last moved back inside the church to rest in peace.

Appearance

Hair: Auburn.

Height: Tall.

Build: Naturally strong and athletic. As a nobleman Cesare grew up with a passion for horse-riding, hunting, and bullfighting. It was said he could twist a horseshoe with his bare hands, and was capable of decapitating a bull with a single strike of his sword.

Features: Attractive. Indeed, Cesare was considered by some to be the most handsome man of his era.

Clothing: Cesare knew the importance of maintaining a powerful appearance. During the renaissance, clothing was not just a matter of fashion, but an advertisement of family wealth and personal prestige. Some of Cesare’s richest robes would have cost more than the income of a middle-class family – silver and gold thread were woven into the cloth, and many pieces would have been studded with expensive jewels and enamels.

In his younger years, Cesare was a church cleric, eventually rising to Cardinal by the time he was eighteen. Normally, as a member of the church, he would have been expected to dress in a close-fitting cassock, a rochet of linen and lace, a scarlet mozzetta cape, and a scarlet zucchetto skullcap. Instead, Cesare rarely wore ecclesiastical dress, and was noted for being rather flamboyant and showy in his looks (commentators at the French court even considered him ridiculously extravagant). For example, he was known to wear a doublet of white brocade and crimson satin in the French style, white buskins (half boots), a cape and bonnet of black velvet with golden tassels, and a white plume adorned with a gold medallion showing a woman’s head. At Lucrezia’s wedding to Alfonso of Aragon, he wore sleeves embroidered with pearls, chains of balas rubies, and a beret studded with a jewel worth 150,000 ducats.

In his more mature years, Cesare’s appearance changed drastically, his looks becoming severe and intense, although no less bold or impressive. He would often dress entirely in black: a black doublet, black breeches, a gold belt with parade sword engraved with scenes from the life of Caesar, and a black biretta with a white feather. Even more unusual, he would sometimes wear a mask. The most likely reason is that he had contracted syphilis (a common malady in renaissance Italy), which left him with painful pustules over his body and face. During outbreaks of the disease, a mask would be rather useful to hide his disfigurement. Possibly for the same reason, Cesare would also conduct his affairs at night, working from 3pm-3am, meeting visitors in the dark by the light of a single candle.

Personality

Ambitious: From an early age, Cesare possessed almost unlimited ambition. He grew up with the knowledge that his family had already produced one pope, and during his adolescence his father also acceded to the papacy, naturally leading to high expectations for his own future. Ecclesiastical titles were showered on him from a young age, further stoking his expectations. But ironically it may have been the fact that he was overlooked by his father for many years, that caused his ambition to reach such extreme levels. Due to his illegitimate birth, Cesare could not take the titles and honors normally reserved for the eldest son. The injustice of this demotion quickly made him aware that power and fame would not come to him easily – if he wanted to succeed in life, he needed to work harder, faster, and longer than his rivals, he needed to use all resources at his disposal, and he needed the capacity to act in situations where others could not, no matter how immoral the outcome.

After the murder of his brother in 1497, Cesare rose into prominence, finally becoming the object of his father’s attention. He eventually assumed Juan’s leadership of the army and won an astonishing series of victories over Borgia enemies. By age twenty seven, Cesare had conquered a large part of Italy and was swiftly becoming the most powerful man in central Europe. He took his motto Either Caesar or nothing extremely seriously, hoping to become the first crowned king over a united Italy, setting the foundation for his own empire. Such fearless levels of ambition could be dangerous and Cesare felt convinced he would die young – a prophecy which became true in 1507 when he was killed on the battlefield at only thirty-one years old.

Shrewd and Ruthless: Throughout the majority of his life, Cesare displayed a great aptitude for trickery and intrigue. Many historians do not consider him a supreme military tactician, since he fought no major war, but rather deem him a master of deception, cunning, and opportunism.

The are many stories of his duplicity. During his third military campaign in the Romagna, Cesare famously solicited use of the Duke of Urbino’s artillery to help supply the papal army, then used the Duke’s very own armoury to help storm the town of Urbino itself. At another conquered town, Cesare employed a deputy for the messy and unpopular task of executing all enemies of the Borgia family. Cesare then had the deputy executed for such unwarranted ‘cruelty’ to the people, thereby regaining popular favour as a just and responsible governor! Lastly, when Cesare’s own military commanders (condottieri) rebelled against his leadership, he was such an accomplished deceiver that he managed to trick them all into attending a meeting of reconciliation, whereupon he subsequently had them arrested and executed for treason (known as ‘The Massacre at Sinigaglia’) .

Sensitive: Although physically tough, Cesare was far less robust emotionally and could be quick to take offense. As Alexander once said: The Duke is a good-natured man, but he cannot tolerate an insult. At least one papal courtier found this out to his peril – after spending a drunken night in Rome spreading rumors about Cesare, the courtier disappeared mysteriously, leaving almost no trace to his whereabouts. His friends later inspected his lodgings and found only his severed hand holding his severed tongue. A clear warning to others who would dare insult a Borgia…

Lustful: Rome was often nicknamed ‘the city of women’, due to its high population of courtesans, and there is much evidence that Cesare enjoyed their frequent attentions. In Rome, many courtesans were not just objects of sexual pleasure, they were also intellectually accomplished and held artistic salons open to the public for a fee, where attendees could listen to music, dance, or engage in philosophical conversations. Such women were trained to be intelligent company and took lessons in singing, dancing, Latin, letter-writing, painting, and deportment.

As a handsome, powerful, and wealthy nobleman, Cesare would have been a highly sought-after patron for any courtesan. Pope Alexander would also have encouraged such behaviour, due to his own love of feminine attention (he was rumoured to keep a flock of courtesans roaming the Apostolic palace). However, even by the lax moral standards of the renaissance, the Borgias could sometimes shock their contemporaries with their extravagant debauchery. For example, on one notorious occasion, Cesare and Alexander held an evening at the Vatican known as the ‘Ballet of the Chestnuts’, at which over 50 courtesans attended in the nude to frolic with papal courtiers and eat chestnuts from their palms, culminating in an orgy that lasted the entire night.

Flamboyant: Cesare was adept at arranging spectacles to display his abilities, impress his friends, and intimidate his rivals. Undoubtedly due to his Spanish heritage, one of his great loves was bullfighting.

To honor Lucrezia’s second wedding, Cesare organized a bullfight in the park of Cardinal Asciano’s villa. Bearing a silver and gold lance, and riding a white Barbary steed in a jewelled harness, Cesare appeared on the field before over ten thousand spectators. Accompanying him, two mounted pages waved banners embroidered with a golden sun, and preceding them were twelve boys dressed in Cesare’s livery of yellow satin halved with carmine, and also twelve horsemen in the same livery. That day, he killed all 12 bulls set against him.

Cesare could also mount processions on a far larger scale. When he returned to Rome from France, he did so with a carefully managed spectacle designed to flaunt his newly gained power and importance. The crowds of Rome watched as he entered the city and proceeded down Via Lata (now the Corso) from Porta del Popolo with a parade full of city dignitaries and officials of the Vatican Curia in fine robes. Cardinals wore their purple and ermine, and their household servants were dressed in rich livery, and papal ambassadors followed with large retinues of staff. After this came five companies of Cesare’s Swiss and Gascon mercenaries, then two heralds (one for France, one for Cesare), one thousand infantrymen in shining armor, one hundred of his personal guard with word ‘Cesar’ emblazoned on their chests, then fifty gentlemen of his household, then cavalry, and lastly Cesare himself flanked by the powerful Cardinals Orsini and Farnese, with Pope Alexander trailing them all. Quite a show!

Immediate Family

Pope Alexander VI (1431 – 1503)

Originally from Spain (Valencia). Despite his advanced age when he became Pope, he was known to have an aggressive, clever, charming and virile personality. His climb to power began in 1455, when his uncle became Pope Calixtus III. After holding the position of cardinal for 36 years, he became Pontiff in 1492 (and was accused of bribing his way to the papacy). Despite the lax morals of the time, Alexander is known for bringing new depths of corruption to the Vatican, and his contemporaries despised him for defiling the sanctity of the Church.

Alexander had many notorious traits. He used his own children to further the political aims of the family. He is rumored to have created his own special poison and used it to kill many of his enemies. And he also kept his own personal flock of courtesans resident at the Vatican. His carnal behavior soon inspired many rumors of orgies and other licentious activities at the Apostolic Palace (there were even unsubstantiated rumors of incest with his daughter Lucrezia).

Alexander died shortly after dining with Cesare at the villa of Cardinal Adriano da Corneto in 1503. During this meal, both Cesare and Alexander possibly contracted a disease or ingested a poison (some people suggest that they were trying to poison their host, but accidentally poisoned each other instead). Days later, both Cesare and Alexander collapsed with a life-threatening illness: Cesare recovered, but Alexander did not. By the time of his burial, Alexander’s body was so badly decomposed (swollen and black) that porters had to use clubs to pummel it into a casket.

Vannozza dei Cattanei (1442 – 1518)

Originally from Lombardy, daughter of Jacopo Pinctoris (a painter). Like Lucrezia, she had fair hair and light green eyes. She raised Cesare for only a few years: in 1483, Alexander took his children away from her, placing them with his cousin Adriana da Mila at the vast Orsini Palazzo at Montegiordano.

Due to several marriages, and her relationship with Alexander, Vannozza became quite a wealthy woman. In fact, she owned three of Rome’s inns: ‘The Lion’, ‘The Cow’, and ‘The Eagle’. When she died in 1518, she donated all her money to religious causes and was buried with great honor at the church of Santa Maria del Popolo.

Juan (1476 – 1497)

Although he was the younger of Alexander’s two sons, Vannozza gave birth to Juan when she was a widow – hence Alexander could legally declare Juan as his son (unlike Cesare). This meant that Juan became the heir to the Borgia fortune and titles. He was considered the Pope’s favorite son, but he also had a reputation as a cruel, dissolute, and pretentious young man. He married into Spanish nobility and gained the title Duke of Gandia; and Alexander originally gave him the titles of Gonfalonier of the Church and Captain General of the Papal Army. Unfortunately, Juan was inept at his military command – he failed in his campaign to storm the Orsini fortress at Bracciano, deeply embarrassing the family in front of their enemies.

In 1497, Juan was murdered (stabbed nine times) in Rome after attending a banquet with Cesare at his mother’s country villa. He was last seen alive in the company of a masked man, riding away in the direction of the Ghetto. After a day’s search of the city, his body was discovered to have been dumped in the Tiber. There were many suspects for the murder, including his brother Cesare (who had most to gain from Juan’s death), and the Orsini, but Alexander stopped the police investigation after less than a month’s progress. The killer was never identified.

Jofré (1482–1522)

Alexander’s youngest son. At age twelve he was married to Sancia of Aragon (16yrs old), daughter of Alfonso II of Naples, forging an important political alliance for the Borgia family.

Jofré lived mostly at Rome with Sancia, but their marriage was childless and constantly plagued by Sancia’s rumoured affairs with other noblemen, including Juan and Cesare. Alexander also had little respect for his younger son, disappointed with Jofré’s clear disinterest in politics and military affairs.

After the death of Alexander in 1503, Jofré returned to his estates in Squillace, which he ruled over with the authority of the Neapolitan court. Sancia died three years later and Jofré took the opportunity to marry again, this time to Maria de Mila. This union was more successful, producing four children, including an heir, Francesco Borgia, who inherited the title of Prince of Squillace.

Lucrezia (1480 – 1519)

Possibly the most interesting member of the Borgia family, rivalling Cesare for notoriety throughout history.

Like her older brother, Lucrezia was renowned for her looks as well as her intelligence. She was highly educated, fluent in Italian, Catalan, French, Latin, and Greek, and she also loved music, poetry, and dancing. Raised in an atmosphere of male dominance and power during her childhood, lavished by her father’s affection, she was also encouraged to have great love and loyalty towards her family, and her three later marriages would prove useful in establishing political connections across Italy.

Nevertheless, Lucrezia was a typical Borgia, both strong-willed and rebellious in character. In 1497, at the age of 17, she ran away to the Dominican convent of San Sisto, perhaps due to a quarrel with Alexander about her divorce from her first husband, Giovanni Sforza (the process could be humiliating for a woman). The convent was the only place she could escape the authority of her family, and she refused to return home when her father requested it. Furthermore, after the death of Alfonso of Aragon, her second husband, she rejected absolute loyalty to her family and soon fell out of favor with her father (in reaction, he banished her to the far corner of the Papal States to marry a nobleman in Ferrara).

During her life, she had affairs with secret lovers, and there were strong rumors that she gave birth out of wedlock in 1498. At the same time, a child mysteriously appeared at the Vatican named the ‘infans Romanus’ (child of Rome), and the mother and father were unknown. Later, Alexander himself accepted parentage in a secret Papal Bull, yet this may only have been for purposes of legitimacy and succession. The real father may actually have been Pedro ‘Perotto’ Calderon, a papal servant who was rumored to have been Lucrezia’s lover. Lending credence to this legend, is the fact that Cesare violently attacked Perotto at the Vatican, possibly after learning about his dishonorable affair with Lucrezia. Days later, Perotto was found drowned in the Tiber, the killer unknown.

Proof of Lucrezia’s intelligence can been seen in the fact that Alexander gave her the governorship of several cities (Spoleto, Foligno, Nepi, and Sermoneta). Furthermore, when he left Rome to visit his newly captured castles in the Campagna, Alexander placed Lucrezia as regent in charge of the Holy See and the Vatican. Such an event was totally unprecedented in the history of the Catholic Church and no other woman has ever since officially ruled over the Holy See.

During the renaissance, women were generally considered to be untrustworthy and deceitful because of their spiritual inheritance from the original sinfulness of Eve. This worldview partly explains why Lucrezia has so often been blamed for the crimes of her family, despite the lack of any evidence to suggest her involvement. It should be noted that almost no one in her own time accused her of taking part in the poisonings attributed to Alexander and Cesare – her contemporaries in Rome merely felt that her reputation was tarnished by allegations of incest and promiscuity. Indeed, the legend of Lucrezia as a femme fatale, her image as a ruthless woman who murdered her enemies, actually arises years later from the many novels, plays, and operas created by artists in the centuries after her death.

In reality, after her father died in 1503, and Cesare swiftly fell from power, Lucrezia was no longer used as a pawn to increase the influence and interests of the House of Borgia. Instead, in the lands of Ferrara, she settled into a new role as Duchess of Ferrara, reinventing herself as a generous patron of the arts, a loving mother of seven children, and a kind benefactor of many charities. By the time of her death in 1519, many people mourned at her loss and she was buried with great honor in the highest church in Ferrara, the disgraceful rumors about her past now long forgotten...

Marriage

Spouse: Charlotte of Albret (1480–1514)

Ceremony: 10 May, 1499

Location: Blois

Dowry: 30,000 livres

Charlotte was the daughter of Alain d'Albret, Duc de Guyenne, and sister of John III, King of Navarre. Cesare originally met her while visiting the court of Louis XII in pursuit of another noblewoman (Carlotta of Aragon), but when his intentions were frustrated, he soon cast his eye elsewhere and found Charlotte a very desirable match. Not only was Charlotte wealthy and young (19 yrs old), and described as one of the most beautiful women in France, but her family was an historically important member of the aristocracy and would provide a strong alliance with the French king. Indeed, her paternal great-great-grandfather was Charles d'Albret, Constable of France, who was killed while commanding the French troops at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. This marriage was an important political achievement for the Borgia family, and shortly after the wedding, Cesare accompanied King Louis in his invasion of Italy.

In 1500, Charlotte became the mother of Cesare’s only legitimate child, Louise Borgia. When Cesare died in 1507, she acted as regent over Valentinois in place of her daughter (who inherited the Duchy). She also increased her personal wealth by becoming the owner of various properties, such as Néret, La Motte-Feuilly, and Feusines.

Charlotte died on the 11 March, 1514, at the Chateau of La Motte-Feuilly, and was buried in the convent of the Annonciades at Bourges.

Children

Legitimate Offspring: Louise Borgia, Duchess of Valentinois

Born: 17 May, 1500

Died: 1553

Little is known about Cesare’s daughter, but historical records show that Louise first married Louis II de la Trémoille, Governor of Burgundy on 7 April 1517. After his death, she later married Philippe de Bourbon, Siegneur de Busset, on 3 February 1530, with whom she had a child.

While Louise was Cesare’s only official offspring, he was also thought to have fathered at least eleven other illegitimate children by various mistresses. One daughter, Lucrezia, was sent to the court at Ferrara, where she lived with her aunt and namesake, Lucrezia Borgia.

Political / Military Career

Title: Duke of Valentinois

Reign: 17 August 1498 – 12 March 1507 (8 years, 207 days)

The Rise

At age seven, Cesare became the canon of the Cathedral of Valencia; at sixteen, he became Bishop of Pamplona; and at eighteen he was anointed the Cardinal of Valencia. Initially groomed for a life in the church, Cesare was eventually recognised as Alexander’s son in a secret Papal Bull, and following Juan’s death in 1497 he become the heir to the family dynasty.

Alexander and Cesare planned to establish a lasting powerbase for the Borgia family. Despite the supreme authority and wealth of the papacy, the title couldn’t be inherited when Alexander died, and so it offered no independent or continuous power for the Borgia family. Alexander and Cesare sought to rectify this situation by building an independent empire under Cesare’s control. The eventual hope was that Cesare would conquer enough of Italy to establish his own state, and then possibly unify Italy under his sole command. To do this, the Borgias needed an extremely powerful ally who could supply the military muscle they desperately lacked…

In 1498 when Louis XII inherited the throne of France and threatened war with Naples, Alexander used the opportunity to forge an alliance with the king by agreeing to grant him a divorce from his current wife. In return, Cesare relinquished his cardinalate and was granted the French title Duke of Valentinois. He also departed for the French court to train as a soldier in King Louis’s army. While at the court, Cesare married Charlotte d’Albret, sister to John III, King of Navarre, further solidifying the new alliance.

Soon after, Louis XII invaded Milan with Cesare in the ranks and granted him a contingent of French soldiers to wage his own battles in the papal states. Alexander now assumed direct legal control of many papal states on the grounds they had not paid the census. Cesare’s new mission was to enforce papal control with his newly gained military strength. He did this exceptionally well. On his first campaign, he conquered the rogue towns of Imola, Forli, and Pesaro with little trouble.

In reward for his victories, Alexander granted Cesare the Golden Rose and invested him with the insignia of Gonfalonier and Captain General of the Church.

Cesare then returned to the battlefield in the Romagna with over ten thousand men, seizing control of Faenza, Piombino, and Elba. He also assisted the French army as they vanquished the cities of Capua and Naples.

On Cesare’s third Romagna campaign, he sezied Urbino and sacked Camerino, finally achieving complete control over a vast section of Italy. The Borgias had now reached the zenith of their power and all their enemies were firmly in retreat. It is likely that Cesare was next planning to invade Tuscany, a move that finally would have allowed him to create his own state…

The Fall

Since Cesare’s military force was supplied by France, his fate was inextricably bound to the fortunes of the French army. Thus, when King Louis was defeated at Seminara and Cerignola, Cesare’s fledging empire suffered its first signs of instability.

Even more important that the French army, however, was the health of Cesare’s father, upon whom he still heavily depended on for wealth and authority. When he and the Pope were stricken by illness (or poisoning) in 1503, the situation turned immediately turned dire for the Borgias. Alexander died from the mysterious condition, and although Cesare recovered slowly, he was incapacitated for many weeks, leaving him vulnerable to his many enemies. Almost immediately, rival families hurried to re-establish control over important areas of the city, while out in the Romagna deposed warlords mustered their supporters and retook several towns.

The next papal successions further weakened the Borgia’s remaining power. Pope Pius II was elected to succeed Alexander, but died 26 days later, leaving the way open for Pope Julius II, a long-time foe of the Borgia family. Julius immediately refused to let Cesare enforce papal authority in the Romagna and divested him of his role as Captain General of the church. Indeed, Cesare was soon arrested by Julius and only managed to barter his way to freedom by agreeing to surrender control over the cities he had conquered. Fearing for his life under Julius’s rule, Cesare then fled to Naples to join the French. However, all hopes of a Borgia resurgence were ended in 1504, when King Louis surrendered his forces at Gaeta. With no powerful ally to back his plans, Cesare failed to gather support for a plot against Julius. He was taken prisoner again near Perugia, betrayed and captured by the Spanish Viceroy who refused to join the conspiracy.

From Italy, Cesare was transported to Spain and imprisoned at Chinchilla, then transferred to the dungeons at the fortress of Medina del Campo. However, he managed a daring escape and fled back France, seeking the refuge of Charlotte’s brother, the King of Navarre. Unable to return to Italy, he was given command over the Navarrese army and served the King for a year, until he was killed in battle at a siege in Viana.

Legacy

The great ambitions of Cesare and Pope Alexander, and their near achievement of a Borgia controlled state, generated a huge amount of upset and opposition among the established powers in Italy. Predictably, these enemies fought back with propaganda, smearing the Borgia name with a multitude of sensational crimes and sordid stories, some of them based in the reality of Cesare’s colourful life in Rome, but many of them purely fictitious. Cesare was portrayed as a demonic force, a devil with insatiable desires for sex, a murderer who had delighted in the death of his own brother, and a cruel despot who dominated his father’s will. Cesare’s larger-than-life persona, complete with mask and black clothing, made him an easy target for such attacks, and it was often commonplace to attribute any unexplained or unusual death in Rome to Cesare and the dark arts of the Borgia family. Due to the lack of comprehensive historical records from the era, fact is inevitable entwined with fiction and much of this propaganda still exists today, adding to the Borgia legend.

Perhaps the most important effect Cesare has left on history, is his influence over the statesman and political philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli. The two men first met when Machiavelli attended the Borgia court from 1502 to 1503. Machiavelli was on a diplomatic mission in his function as Secretary of the Florentine Chancellery, and wrote regular letters to the government in Florence, many of which have survived and are published today. Machiavelli was much impressed with the efficient, decisive, and morally unconstrained way that Cesare wielded power, and used him as the inspiration for the ideal ruler in his seminal political work ‘The Prince’. Thus, although Cesare’s military accomplishments may now be forgotten, it is through this book, the most important philosophical discussion of power ever written, that Cesare still makes a lasting and valuable impression on the world today.

SOURCES

Alexander, VI (1431-1503). Encyclopedia of World Biography. Detroit: Gale, 1998. Gale World History In Context. Web. 1 Feb. 2011.

Alexander, Virginia. What Life Was Like At The Rebirth Of Genius: Renaissance Italy AD 1400-1550. Ed. Denise Dersin. New York: Time Life Books, 1999.

Borgia, Cesare, Duc De Valentinois. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2012. Web. 25 Jan. 2012.

Borgia, Lucrezia, Duchess of Ferrara (1480-1519). Encyclopedia of World Biography. Detroit: Gale, 1998. Gale World History In Context. Web. 1 Feb. 2011.

Bradford, Sarah. Lucrezia Borgia: Life, Love and Death In Renaissance Italy. New York: Viking, 2004.

Cesare Borgia. Encyclopedia of World Biography. Detroit: Gale, 1998. Gale World History In Context. Web. 1 Feb. 2011.

Cesare Borgia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. January 25, 2012.

Cloulas, Ivan. The Borgias. Trans. Gilda Roberts. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1985.

Erlanger, Rachel. Lucrezia Borgia: A Biography. New York: Hawthorn Books, 1978.

Fisher, Robert I.C. Fodor's Holy Rome, 1st Edition: A Millennium Guide to Christian Sights. New York: Fodor's Travel Publications, Inc., 1999.

Haslip, Joan. Lucrezia Borgia: A Study. London: Cassel & Co. Ltd., 1953.

In Search Of History: The Borgias. Narr. David Ackroyd. Prod. Deborah Blum. History Channel, A&E Home Video, 1997.

Ketchum, Richard M., ed. The Horizon Book Of The Renaissance. New York: American Heritage Publishing Co, Inc., 1961.

King, Ross. Michelangelo And The Pope's Ceiling. New York: Penguin, 2003.

Lucrezia Borgia. Historic World Leaders. Gale, 1994. Gale World History In Context. Web. 1 Feb. 2011.

Moore, Malcom. The Rehabilitation of Cesare Borgia. The Telegraph, Jan 23 2007.

Scott, R. A. Basilica: The Splendor And The Spectacle: Building St. Peters. New York: Viking, 2006.

Wild, Fiona, and John Heseltine. Eyewitness Travel: Rome. New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishers, Ltd. , 2006.

LIFE IN ROME

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Population

In the ancient era, Rome had a population approaching 1 million people (by the 4th century AD, over 800,000 people lived in the city). After the barbarian invasions in the 5th century AD, and the Papacy’s removal to Avignon in 1309, the city’s population steadily dwindled to around 50,000 people. By Cesare’s time, however, Rome was again the seat of the Catholic Church, the city was thriving, and the population had grown to 200,000 people.

Architecture

Renaissance Rome was a city entirely enclosed within ancient walls, and Roman ruins dominated the cityscape. Everywhere there were broken columns and remains of roman theatres, circuses, and stadiums. Medieval houses and huts sprouted between all the ruins like weeds (indeed, people often plundered the ruins for building material or razed them to the ground to make way for new building projects). The city was also still very rustic, like a collection of overgrown villages. Cows grazed at the Forum, horses ran wild around Trajan’s Column, and sheep flocked on most of the Seven Hills. The city was even thought to smell like a barnyard!

Streets

The roads were narrow and cobbled, receiving little sunlight. In summer, temperatures could be cool in the tiny alleyways, but stepping out into a piazza was like entering a furnace. Cramped neighborhoods were also rimmed with watchtowers that guarded the strongholds of the baronial families (the Houses of Savelli, Cenci, Orsini, and Colonna).

Skyline

In Cesare’s time there were no picturesque domes yet (except the flattened roof of the Pantheon), but the city was notable for having 300 towers and campaniles (freestanding bell towers), many of them crenelated. The city also had four major basilicas: St. Peters; St. Paolo Fuori le Mura; St Giovanni in Laterano; and St. Maria Maggiore. The sloping roofs and formal arches of each church looked like vaulted islands spread out in four distant locations in the city.

Lifestyle

When the Papacy went to Avignon, Rome turned into a faint shadow of its illustrious past. The city became full of vast, ruinous buildings and plague. Soon it was soon overrun by warring Roman tribes (the Orsini and Colonna) who killed each other, terrorized the citizens, raped nuns, robbed monks, and pillaged churches.

Although these problems remained far into Cesare’s time, the city was beginning to regain its strength. Once the Papacy had finally returned to Rome, the city slowly began to rebuild physically, artistically, and politically. Popes constructed bridges, widened streets, built hospitals, erected churches, gave land to people to build houses or palaces.

One of the main interests in Rome was the ruins. Scholars and architects began to find a new respect and admiration for the ruins, and many artists were inspired by new discoveries of ancient painting and sculpture (e.g., in 1490, the Apollo Belvedere was found in a roman villa). Travellers would visit from all over Europe and Asia to see sights like the Colosseum, Pantheon, Trajan’s Column, the Capitol, and the Pyramid of Caius Cestius.

Rome was also famous as a place of loose morals – it was even nicknamed ‘The City of Women’, for there were over 7,000 courtesans and prostitutes at work in the city.

Notable Locations

St. Peter’s Basilica (Basilica di San Pietro)

This was the old building (before Julius II demolished and rebuilt it), originally constructed by the Emperor Constantine. It was the largest church in the world, cluttered with over one hundred Corinthian columns, numerous side chapels (over 90), treasures, and monuments to dead Pontiffs. In the center, the altar was located over St Peter’s tomb, and above it stood a solid gold cross that weighed 150 pounds.

Outside in the piazza, the area was full of beggars, stalls, and kiosks selling wares to pilgrims visiting the church.

The Apostolic Palace (Palazzo Apostolico)

Hall of the Parrot (Sala del Pappagallo) – the site of many Borgia parties, and also where Alexander lay in state after his death.

Royal Hall (Sala Reale) – the chamber where Alexander gave public audiences; also, the site of the notorious Ballet of the Chestnuts.

The Borgia Apartments (Appartamento Borgia)

Located on the second floor of the Apostolic Palace, this network of chambers was the private living quarters for Alexander and Cesare. Alexander had this are built specially to his design when he became pontiff in 1492. In total, there were five reception rooms (2 in Borgia Tower): Room of the Liberal Arts, Room of the Saints, Room of the Faith, Room of the Sibyls, Room of the Creed. Each hall was decorated with murals painted by the artist Pinturicchio, and they are now considered one of the jewels of the Renaissance.

Hall of the Pontiff (Sala dei Pontefici) – 2,300 square ft antechamber, decorated with portraits of 10 famous popes. A narrow marble doorway (with crest above that shows the Keys of St Peter and the arms of Nicholas V) leads to a suite of 3 reception rooms, each covering an area of 100 square yards.

1st Room: Hall of the Faith (Sala dei Misteri della Fede) – gilded stuccowork with a blue background enhances the rich murals inside the hall. The murals have scenes from the New Testament, representing the mysteries of the Faith and are framed with gold arabesques set against a pale green ground. The walls depict the Annunciation, Nativity, Epiphany, Resurrection, Assumption, and Pentecost. In the scene of Resurrection, Alexander is shown kneeling at Christ’s tomb as the Savior ascends to heaven.

2nd Room: Hall of the Saints (Sala dei Santi) – decorated with the lives of the saints. 6 frescos fill the lunettes formed by the vault, and above them is a marble cornice carved with a bull motif. On rear wall, Lucrezia is shown as St. Catherine of Alexandria facing 50 opponents, as the Emperor Maxim challenges her to refute the pagan beliefs. The emperor sits on a throne with a gold canopy over his head, and is thought to be a depiction of Cesare. To the far right, a man sits on horseback in oriental dress with dogs at his side: this is considered to be a portrait of Juan Borgia. There is also a round stucco frame above the entrance to the room depicting Guila Farnese (Alexander’s longtime mistress) as the Virgin Mary teaching Christ to read.

3rd Room: Hall of the Liberal Arts (Sala delle Arti Liberali) – a large study brightened by frescos of the liberal arts represented as young women (grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, music, geometry, arithmetic, etc.) on marble thrones surrounded by scholars. In the vault are allegories of Justice.

Borgia Tower (Torre Borgia): a massive construction built in 1494, facing the Sistine Chapel, and overlooking a small courtyard. It contains:

Hall of the Sibyls (Sala delle Sibille) – 700 square ft. Is the first room one enters when going to Tower. Lucrezia’s second husband, Alfonso of Aragon, was murdered here in 1500 by Cesare. The chamber overlooks the Belvedere gardens, and it contains 24 lunettes depicting sibyls and old-testament prophets announcing the coming of the Savior.

Hall of the Creed (Sala del Credo) – 1,000 square ft. reception room, consisting of 3 windows and 12 frescos depicting apostles and prophets.

Palazzo Santa Maria in Portico

Cesare and his siblings moved into this palazzo in 1492 when their father Rodrigo Borgia became Pope Alexander VI. This was the main residence for Lucrezia’s entire adult life in Rome. The palazzo was built by Giovanni-Battista Zeno, Cardinal of Santa Maria in Portico, and was rented to Alexander. The building stood to left of the steps of St. Peter’s Basilica, almost directly opposite the Palace of the Inquisitions. It also had a private chapel opening directly onto St. Peter’s, meaning that Lucrezia could slip unnoticed into the Sistine chapel, and from there into the Pope’s private apartments (and vice-versa).

Castel Sant’Angelo

Rome’s major fortress, built by Emperor Hadrian as his mausoleum, but used by Popes as a stronghold in times of danger (it defended the northern entrance to the city, and held huge reserves of food, complete with granaries, a mill, vast water tanks, and even wineskins in the walls!). A covered, fortified secret corridor called the ‘Passetto di Borgo’ links the castle with the apostolic palace (it looks only like a wall from the outside).

Campo de’ Fiori

An open air marketplace, and also a site for executions. The square was named after Pompey’s lover Flora (the Italian name means Flora’s square). Surrounding the square were many inns and taverns catering to pilgrims, artisans, and prostitutes, including three inns owned by Cesare’s mother, Vannozza Catanei (‘The Lion’; ‘The Cow’; ‘The Eagle’). Nearby lies the Curia of Pompey, the site where Julius Caesar was murdered, as well as the Palazzo della Cancelleria (the papal administration building).

Via dei Coronari

A street used by pilgrims walking to St. Peter’s Basilica, who would then cross over the Tiber River at the Ponte Sant’Angelo. Many businesses sprang up here to serve Pilgrims, including rosary sellers (the ‘Coronari’). By the late 1400’s, several homes and palaces also stood along the street, including the house of Fiammetta (a mistress of Cesare) at the address of 156-157.

Via del Corso

The main street in Rome, lined with many ancient churches. It was also the principal access route to the city for visitors and pilgrims from the North. This was also the street where Cesare and his siblings would have celebrated the city’s festivals, parades, and spectacles, including the Carnival races.

Esquiline Hill

The largest and highest of Rome’s 7 hills. It was a poor area, but Vannozza owned a vineyard here. In 1497, it was this vineyard that Cesare and Juan visited it on the night of Juan’s murder.

Ghetto

Juan was last seen alive here in 1497, riding into the Piazza Guidea with a masked man.

Church of Santa Maria del Popolo

Located near the Aurelian walls, this church is a typical example of the era’s architecture, and it was also the burial place of Juan and Vannozza.

Notable Events

Jubilee Year (1500)

This was a sabbatical celebration held every 50 yrs (then also every 25 yrs). During the year, normal work activities were ceased, slaves were freed, and debts/punishments were forgiven. Rome normally seethed with pilgrims (as many as 30,000 entering and exiting every day), but this greatly increased during the Jubilee. This is why Alfonso of Aragon’s attackers disguised themselves as pilgrims to assault him in St. Peter’s square (they could blend-in within the masses of people until the fatal moment).

The Roman Carnival (Carnevale Romano)

A riotous celebration held just before Ash Wednesday, around January or February. The festival was a final burst of exuberance before the severity and fasting of Lent. Over several days, the entire city stopped work, as people ate rich foods, played pranks, staged jousts, sang and danced, mocked authority, and dressed up in colorful masks and disguises. Each day saw a dangerous event known as the ‘Corsa dei Barberi’: a race held with unsaddled horses along the Via del Corso. On the final night, people engaged in a wild party called the ‘Festa dei Moccoletti’ along Via del Corso: all revellers held a candle (a ‘moccolo’) and they played at the game of extinguishing each other’s flames. When they were successful, they shouted Senza moccolo, senza moccolo! (without a light, without a light!).

Charles Dickens described the festival, essentially unchanged since the renaissance, during his visit to Rome in 1844-1845:

As the bright hangings and the dresses are all fading into one dull, heavy, uniform colour in the decline of the day, lights begin flashing, here and there: in the windows, on the house-tops, in the balconies, in the carriages, in the hands of foot-passengers: little by little: gradually, gradually: more and more: until the whole long street is one great glare and blaze of fire. Then everybody present has but one engrossing object; that is, to extinguish other people's candles, and to keep his own alight; and everybody: man, woman, or child, gentleman or lady, prince or peasant, native or foreigner: yells and screams, and roars incessantly, as a taunt to the subdued, Senza Moccolo, Senza Moccolo!" (Without a light! Without a light!) until nothing is heard but a gigantic chorus of those two words, mingled with peals of laughter.

The spectacle, at this time, is one of the most extraordinary that can be imagined. Carriages coming slowly by, with everybody standing on the seat or on the box, holding up their lights at arms' length, for greater safety; some in paper shades; some with a bunch of undefended little tapers, kindled altogether; some with blazing torches; some with feeble little candles; men on foot, creeping along, among the wheels, watching their opportunity, to make a spring at some particular light, and dash it out; other people climbing up into carriages, to get hold of them by main force; others, chasing some unlucky wanderer, round and round his own coach, to blow out the light he has begged or stolen somewhere, before he can ascend to his own company, and enable them to light their extinguished tapers; others, with their hats off, at a carriage-door, humbly beseeching some kind-hearted lady to oblige them with a light for a cigar, and when she is in the fullness of