Age of Enlightenment: Period: 1715 – 1789

By Dhirubhai Patel

The Age of Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 17th to 19th centuries. The Enlightenment emerged out of a European intellectual and scholarly movement known as Renaissance humanism.
Index
Chapter 1 : Short History of Age of Enlightenment
Chapter : 2 Philosophy
Chapter 3 : Science in the Age of Enlightenment
3.1 Societies and Academies
3.2 Periodicals
3.3 Encyclopedias and dictionaries
3.4 Popularization of science
3.5 British coffeehouses
3.6 Public lectures
3.7 Popular science in print
3.8 Women in science
3.9 Disciplines
3.10 Chemistry
Chapter 4 : Sociology, economics and law
Chapter 5 : Politics

5.1 Theories of government
5.2 Enlightened absolutism
5.3 French Revolution
Chapter 6 : Religion
6.1 Separation of chapel and state
Chapter 7 : National variations
7.1 Great Britain
7.2 Scottish Enlightenment
7.3 American Enlightenment
7.4 German states
7.5 History of Portugal
Chapter 8 : Historiography
8.1 Definition
8.2 Time span
8.3 Modern study
Chapter 9 : Society and culture
9.1 Social and cultural implications in the arts
Chapter 10 : Dissemination of ideas
10.1 The Republic of Letters
10.2 The book industry
10.3 Natural history
10.4 Scientific and literary journals
10.5 Encyclopedias and dictionaries
10.6 Popularization of science
10.7 Schools and universities
10.8 Learned academies
Chapter 11 : Historiography of the salon
11.1 Periodisation of the salon
11.2 Conversation, content and the type of the salon
11.3 The salon and the 'open sphere'
11.4 Debates encompassing ladies and the salon
11.5 Coffeehouses
11.6 Debating societies
11.7 Masonic lodges
11.8 Art

• Language: English
• Publisher: Lulu.com
• Release date: Jun 3, 2020
• ISBN: 9781716870262

Book preview

Age of Enlightenment

Index

Chapter 1 : Short History of Age of Enlightenment

Chapter : 2 Philosophy

Chapter 3 : Science in the Age of Enlightenment

3.1 Societies and Academies

3.2 Periodicals

3.3 Encyclopedias and dictionaries

3.4 Popularization of science

3.5 British coffeehouses

3.6 Public lectures

3.7 Popular science in print

3.8 Women in science

3.9 Disciplines

3.10 Chemistry

Chapter 4 : Sociology, economics and law

Chapter 5 : Politics

5.1 Theories of government 

5.2 Enlightened absolutism

5.3 French Revolution

Chapter 6 : Religion

6.1 Separation of chapel and state

Chapter 7 : National variations

7.1 Great Britain

7.2 Scottish Enlightenment

7.3 American Enlightenment

7.4 German states

7.5 History of Portugal

Chapter 8 : Historiography

8.1 Definition

8.2 Time span

8.3 Modern study

Chapter 9 : Society and culture

9.1 Social and cultural implications in the arts

Chapter 10 : Dissemination of ideas

10.1 The Republic of Letters

10.2 The book industry

10.3 Natural history

10.4 Scientific and literary journals

10.5 Encyclopedias and dictionaries

10.6 Popularization of science

10.7 Schools and universities

10.8 Learned academies

Chapter 11 : Historiography of the salon

11.1 Periodisation of the salon

11.2 Conversation, content and the type of the salon

11.3 The salon and the 'open sphere'

11.4 Debates encompassing ladies and the salon

11.5 Coffeehouses

11.6 Debating societies

11.7 Masonic lodges

11.8 Art

Age of Enlightenment

Chapter 1 :

Short History of Age of Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment was a scholarly and philosophical development that ruled the universe of thoughts in Europe during the eighteenth century, the Century of Philosophy.

The Enlightenment developed out of an European scholarly and academic development known as Renaissance humanism. Some consider the production of Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687) as the primary significant illumination work. French students of history customarily date the Enlightenment from 1715 to 1789, from the earliest starting point of the rule of Louis XV until the French Revolution. Scholars and researchers of the period generally coursed their thoughts through gatherings at logical foundations, Masonic hotels, abstract salons, coffeehouses and in printed books, diaries, and leaflets. The thoughts of the Enlightenment undermined the expert of the government and the Church and made ready for the political transformations of the eighteenth and nineteenth hundreds of years. An assortment of nineteenth century developments, including radicalism and neoclassicism, follow their scholarly heritage to the Enlightenment.

The Enlightenment incorporated a scope of thoughts fixated on reason as the essential wellspring of learning and propelled standards, for example, freedom, progress, toleration, organization, sacred government and detachment of chapel and state. In France, the focal principles of the Enlightenment logicians were singular freedom and religious resilience, contrary to a flat out government and the fixed creeds of the Roman Catholic Church. The Enlightenment was set apart by an accentuation on the logical strategy and reductionism, alongside expanded addressing of religious conventionality—a frame of mind caught by the expression Sapere aude (Dare to know).

The Age of Enlightenment was gone before by and intently connected with the logical revolution. Earlier scholars whose work impacted the Enlightenment included Bacon and Descartes.

A significant number of the principle political and scholarly figures behind the American Revolution related themselves intimately with the Enlightenment: Benjamin Franklin visited Europe over and over and contributed effectively to the logical and political discussions there and took the most current thoughts back to Philadelphia; Thomas Jefferson intently pursued European thoughts and later joined a portion of the goals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence; and James Madison fused these beliefs into the United States Constitution during its encircling in 1787.

The most compelling distribution of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie (Encyclopedia). Distributed somewhere in the range of 1751 and 1772 of every thirtyfive volumes, it was incorporated by Diderot, d'Alembert (until 1759) and a group of 150 researchers and thinkers. Other milestone distributions were Voltaire's Dictionnaire philosophique (Philosophical Dictionary; 1764) and Letters on the English (1733); Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality (1754) and The Social Contract (1762); Adam Smith's The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) and The Wealth of Nations (1776); and Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws (1748). The thoughts of the Enlightenment assumed a noteworthy job in moving the French Revolution, which started in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was trailed by the scholarly development known as Romanticism

Chapter : 2 Philosophy

René Descartes' pragmatist philosophy established the framework for illumination thinking. His endeavor to develop the sciences on a safe otherworldly establishment was not as effective as his technique for uncertainty applied in rational zones prompting a dualistic precept of psyche and matter. His suspicion was refined by John Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) and David Hume's compositions during the 1740s. His dualism was tested by Spinoza's solid statement of the solidarity of issue in his Tractatus (1670) and Ethics (1677).

As indicated by Jonathan Israel, these set down two unmistakable lines of Enlightenment thought: first, the moderate assortment, following Descartes, Locke and Christian Wolff, which looked for convenience among change and the customary frameworks of intensity and confidence, and second, the extreme edification, enlivened by the philosophy of Spinoza, upholding majority rules system, singular freedom, opportunity of articulation and destruction of religious authority. The moderate assortment would in general be deistic, while the extreme propensity isolated the premise of profound quality completely from religious philosophy. The two lines of idea were inevitably restricted by a traditionalist CounterEnlightenment, which looked for an arrival to faith.

In the mideighteenth century, Paris turned into the focal point of a blast of logical and logical action testing customary regulations and authoritative opinions. The rational development was driven by Voltaire and JeanJacques Rousseau, who contended for a general public dependent on reason as in old Greece as opposed to confidence and Catholic teaching, for another common request dependent on regular law, and for science dependent on tests and perception. The political scholar Montesquieu presented the possibility of a detachment of forces in an administration, an idea which was eagerly received by the creators of the United States Constitution. While the Philosophes of the French Enlightenment were not progressives and many were individuals from the honorability, their thoughts had a significant impact in undermining the authenticity of the Old Regime and molding the French Revolution.

Francis Hutcheson, an ethical savant, depicted the utilitarian and consequentialist rule that excellence is what gives, in his words, the best satisfaction for the best numbers. Quite a bit of what is consolidated in the logical strategy (the nature of learning, proof, understanding and causation) and some advanced dispositions towards the connection among science and religion were created by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume turned into a noteworthy figure in the incredulous philosophical and empiricist customs of philosophy.

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) attempted to accommodate logic and religious conviction, singular opportunity and political expert, just as guide out a perspective on the open circle through private and open reason. Kant's work kept on molding German idea and without a doubt all of European philosophy, well into the twentieth century.

Mary Wollstonecraft was one of England's most punctual women's activist philosophers. She contended for a general public dependent on reason and that ladies just as men ought to be treated as balanced creatures.

Chapter 3 :

Science in the Age of Enlightenment

The historical backdrop of science during the Age of Enlightenment follows improvements in science and innovation during the Age of Reason, when Enlightenment thoughts and beliefs were being spread crosswise over Europe and North America. The logical upset saw the formation of the main logical social orders, the ascent of Copernicanism, and the dislodging of Aristotelian regular philosophy and Galen's antiquated therapeutic principle. By the eighteenth century, logical expert started to uproot religious specialist, and the orders of speculative chemistry and crystal gazing lost logical validity.

While the Enlightenment can't be categorized into a particular tenet or set of doctrines, science came to assume a main job in Enlightenment talk and thought. Numerous Enlightenment essayists and scholars had foundations in the sciences and related logical headway with the topple of religion and conventional specialist for the advancement of free discourse and thought. Extensively, Enlightenment science extraordinarily esteemed experimentation and sane idea, and was installed with the Enlightenment perfect of headway and progress. Similarly as with most Enlightenment sees, the advantages of science were not seen generally; JeanJacques Rousseau censured the sciences for separating man from nature and not working to make individuals happier.

Science during the Enlightenment was commanded by logical social orders and institutes, which had to a great extent supplanted colleges as focuses of logical innovative work. Social orders and foundations were likewise the foundation of the development of the logical profession. Another significant improvement was the promotion of science among an inexorably proficient populace. Philosophes acquainted people in general with numerous logical hypotheses, most strikingly through the Encyclopédie and the promotion of Newtonianism by Voltaire just as by Émilie du Châtelet, the French interpreter of Newton's Principia. A few students of history have denoted the eighteenth century as a dreary period in the historical backdrop of science; be that as it may, the century saw critical progressions in the act of medication, arithmetic, and material science; the improvement of natural scientific categorization; another comprehension of attraction and power; and the development of science as a control, which built up the establishments of current science.

The number  of colleges in Paris remained moderately steady all through the eighteenth century. Europe had around 105 colleges and universities by 1700. North America had 44, including the recently established Harvard and Yale. The quantity of college understudies remained generally the equivalent all through the Enlightenment in most Western countries, barring Britain, where the quantity of foundations and