Napoleon's Paris: A Guide to the Napoleonic Sites of the Consulate and First French Empire 1799–1815

By David Buttery

A specialist in Napoleonic history reveals the legendary leader’s influence on the City of Light in this illustrated visitor’s guide.

Historian David Buttery explores the many connections between Napoleon and Paris, where many remarkable buildings and monuments date from his time in power. Many of the city’s most famous sites were built or enhanced on Napoleon’s instructions, while others are closely associated with him and the First French Empire.

Buttery explores the Napoleonic history of the Arc de Triomphe, the Louvre, the Hôtel des Invalides, Musée de l’Armée, Notre Dame Cathedral, Père-Lachaise Cemetery, and other fascinating sites. Full of evocative detail and practical information, Napoleon’s Paris is essential reading for every history buff who visits the French capital.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Open Road Integrated Media
• Release date: Jul 19, 2020
• ISBN: 9781526749482

David Buttery

David Buttery has established a reputation as a leading historian of nineteenth-century British military history and he has made a particular study of the Napoleonic and Crimean Wars.He has worked as a tour guide for several companies and has led tours of the Waterloo campaign battlefields.

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INTRODUCTION

Paris is a stunning place to visit. After centuries of construction work its buildings display a myriad of architectural styles and the city is divided by the river Seine that boasts many famous and beautiful sights along its banks. The bright white stonework of the Sacré-Coeur contrasts with the stark iron of the Eiffel Tower and the gothic splendour of Nôtre-Dame Cathedral, and these iconic buildings are visible from many parts of the city. Tree-lined avenues and gently landscaped parks provide islands of green within this great metropolis, which many people believe to be the most beautiful city in the world. On the right bank of the Seine are gated royal palaces along with monuments, theatres and opera houses. On the left bank are ancient churches, artists’ garrets and old universities. It is a city of many statues, with figures of great men and women sculpted in stone, marble, iron or bronze standing within its parks, squares or alongside its streets.

Paris became known as the city of light after being a centre of intellectualism during the Enlightenment and this image was reinforced by the first illumination of the Champs-Elysées with gas lamps in the mid-nineteenth century. The widespread use of gilding on church domes, statues, bridges, lampposts, railing finials and fountains also makes Paris a city of gold – the colour of royalty and imperialism. There are many reasons to see the French capital including its architecture, museums, cuisine, wine, art and culture, yet it is also renowned as a romantic city devoted to enjoying life to the full. There is much to entertain, amuse or educate people of diverse interests in the most famous metropolis in the world.

So why is a guidebook concentrating on Napoleon Bonaparte and his connections with Paris necessary? Most people know Napoleon I as one of the world’s greatest military commanders but are often only vaguely aware of his other achievements. Like many great figures he was controversial during his own lifetime and affected Europe and the world in both positive and negative ways. Even after 200 years of analysing his life, reign and achievements, the French are undecided over whether he was a hero or a villain. Therefore it is little wonder that people from other nations are similarly confused about what this enigmatic man represented.

He was a conqueror and empire builder but also a reformer and a lawgiver who improved French society and tried to export its benefits to other countries. While enjoying dictatorial power, he was elected (if by a very restricted electorate) and ruled through a national assembly and senate, enjoying more of a democratic mandate than any of the other national leaders in Europe at that time. Yet those on both sides of the political divide were confused about what he stood for. Initially a left-wing republican, when he eventually seized power and attempted to found a dynasty, his approach was far more conservative. Yet throughout the Consular and Imperial periods he promoted practical aspects of republicanism, drawing condemnation from royalists who considered him an upstart, while left-wing radicals felt that he had betrayed revolutionary ideals by not going far enough. He was a man of many contradictions and therefore compels, perplexes and fascinates historians to this day.

His reputation varies enormously between scholars and much depends upon whether their countries fought for or against France during this period. Generally speaking, historians in Britain, Russia, Austria, Portugal and Spain see him as a conqueror and even a tyrant. Holland, Sweden and the former German states have ambivalent attitudes towards him but in Italy, North America and Poland he is widely considered a hero. Yet all acknowledge the enormous influence he had over France and ultimately the history of the world.

In France Napoleon worked tirelessly, drawing up new legislation and reforming nearly every facet of French life including law, science, architecture, education and the democratic process. Indeed, his civic accomplishments outlasted and eclipsed his victories on the battlefield, although they are nowhere near as well-known. This is clearly evident in Paris, which benefited enormously from his rule. In a practical sense, he made life easier for its citizens in terms of travel, accommodation, sanitation and work. Yet he also adored the city and tried to make it even more beautiful by commissioning new parks, bridges, monuments and buildings. Metaphorically speaking, almost every stone in Paris bears his name as the Emperor habitually intervened in projects large and small, devoting much time and energy into improving the city.

Today’s Paris benefits from canals, streets and bridges designed and built at Napoleon’s instigation but his influence is most evident on national landmarks such as the Louvre, Arc de Triomphe and the Madeleine. His awe-inspiring tomb at Les Invalides provides ample testimony of how the French regarded their Emperor only a few decades after his death and displays written and pictorial evidence of the tireless efforts he made on behalf of France, with his achievements going beyond what most rulers could dream of. Such triumphs are even more impressive considering that his rule lasted just under fifteen years and during this time no less than seven military coalitions were formed against France; the resulting wars were more than enough to distract a lesser man from introducing any reforms whatsoever.

In recent times, revisionist historians like Andrew Roberts have argued that he was seldom the aggressor, with most conflicts during the period declared against France or the Emperor in person. Historian David Chandler believed it possible to make convincing arguments in Napoleon’s favour as the defender of a young republic from 1793 to 1806 but from 1807 to 1815 the wars took on a more imperialist tone. His wars of aggression include the Peninsular War of 1807–14 and the invasion of Russia in 1812, which Napoleon bears the brunt of responsibility for. Even so, when viewed within the context of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, he was hardly the warmonger that some historians portray him to be.

Despite wielding dictatorial powers, he was elected Emperor and largely remained true to revolutionary ideals, softening the excesses of the Revolution by permitting the return of priests and émigrés and introducing many positive social changes. He is sometimes compared unfairly to Hitler and Stalin but the comparison is largely superficial as he supported the rights of his people rather than violated them. A better comparison is with Oliver Cromwell, as both gained power in the wake of successful revolutions and implemented practical reforms rather than attempt to meet the unrealistic demands of fanatics.

Although he died nearly 200 years ago, Napoleon’s legend continues to grow and many find him inspirational as the ultimate ‘self-made man’ who rose from obscurity to dominate a continent. The Duke of Wellington disparagingly remarked that ‘the man was no gentleman’ but would a gentleman (at least in the modern sense of the word) have been so successful against the great powers ranged against him? Napoleon continues to assert a powerful appeal and the world was never the same after his contribution. He devoted time and energy to Paris intending the city to be a model for France by displaying French culture and achievements. There is much to be learned in Paris and it is worth travelling there for the pleasure of exploring this great city and trying to understand its past.

How to use this Guidebook

While this book certainly caters for historians and enthusiasts of the early nineteenth century and the Napoleonic Wars, it is hoped that it will appeal to readers with a general interest in history who wish to see some enthralling Napoleonic locations within this magnificent city. There is also no substitute for seeing important sites in person, as the philosopher John Locke wrote ‘No man’s knowledge here can go beyond his experience’ and the author found this to be true on his first trip to Paris as nothing he had read in books prepared him for what he saw in this incredible place.

This guidebook tries to provide the reader with an easy, practical and lucid account of what there is to see and gives simple travel advice about the city. It also provides quality maps, which are vital for exploring fascinating but complex areas such as the Cemetery of Père Lachaise (see Chapter 7). This is a destination that many Napoleonic enthusiasts wish to visit but is notoriously difficult to navigate around due to its size and the maze-like complexity of its streets and tombs.

It is always dangerous to assume knowledge so this book is designed to cater for those with various levels of interest in Napoleon. Therefore the first two chapters provide brief summaries of Napoleon’s career and his plans to improve Paris, intended for those who wish to know more about the period. Chapters 3, 4, 7 and 8 provide detailed accounts of the major Napoleonic sites with information about what there is to see there but Chapter 5 breaks from this trend by giving an account of the Battle of Paris, which saw war come to the city Napoleon hoped to preserve as a centre of culture rather than a battlefield. Chapter 6 details minor Napoleonic locations and supplies three recommended walks to view them while Chapter 9 gives a concise account of important Napoleonic sites just outside the capital. Finally Chapter 10 provides basic travel information.

Whatever readers think about Napoleon Bonaparte and what he represents, he was a man of vast historical importance and worthy of study, so visiting sites associated with his reign is recommended in order to do so. The author hopes that this guidebook will be an invaluable aid for discovering more about the Emperor while touring the world’s most elegant and vibrant city.

Bon voyage et un grand tour de Paris!

David Buttery

Chapter 1

THE CORSICAN ADVENTURER

Although more has been written about Napoleon than almost any historical figure, a brief chapter describing his life and times is appropriate for this guidebook. A charismatic and inspiring personality, he dominated the age he lived in so completely that it is often referred to as the Napoleonic era and only Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan can be seriously be compared to him as soldiers and rulers. His reputation as a military commander is all that most people know of him but Napoleon’s legacy went far beyond his martial achievements leaving an indelible impression upon the world.

Rising to power in the wake of the French Revolution, he softened its harsher aspects while retaining its radical spirit and introducing practical improvements. The administrative and legal codes he created long outlived his reign, influencing the government of France and many other nations to this day. Although the Revolution freed the French people from a state of semi-feudal bondage, it was Napoleon who confirmed their rights and enshrined them in law. Although a controversial figure, he was a unique individual with even his enemies conceding that the world was never the same after Napoleon.

A Rising Star, 1792–1795

Much has been made of Napoleon’s supposedly aristocratic background but his family could only trace their line back to very minor Italian nobility who settled on the island of Corsica in 1529. His father, Carlo Buonaparte, was a lawyer of modest means and the family had become middle class rather than impoverished nobility when his wife Letizia bore him a second son in Ajaccio on 15 August 1769 who they named Napoleone Buonaparte. The fact that Carlo’s son went on to defeat and outmanoeuvre men of vast inherited wealth and power led some to exaggerate his family’s aristocratic origins to explain such triumphs. It was incredibly difficult to rise up the social hierarchy without aristocratic connections at this time, which makes Napoleon’s meteoric rise even more impressive.

France acquired Corsica in 1768 and Napoleone would have been Italian had he be born a year earlier and he later changed the spelling of his name to Napoleon Bonaparte to appear more French. Until he became Emperor, Napoleon rarely used his Christian name and even his first wife referred to him as Bonaparte in public and private before his elevation to imperial dignity. After his coronation as Napoleon I, use of his first name became essential but until that point he shall be largely referred to as Bonaparte for the first half of this chapter.

Carlo Buonaparte’s support for France against the nationalists during the struggle for Corsican independence persuaded the French to grant him a title. This also conferred a subsidy for his sons’ education, which he used to send his two eldest sons to France for schooling. By the time of Carlo’s death in 1785, he had fathered eight children who survived infancy – five sons and three daughters.

The young Bonaparte began his schooling at Autun in 1778 and later studied at Brienne. His elder brother Joseph studied law but Napoleon finished his education at the École Militaire (see Chapter 6) in Paris from 1784–5 where his forceful personality and excellence in mathematics marked him out as an ideal candidate for the artillery. Unlike the cavalry and infantry, the artillery valued knowledge and ability over aristocratic connections as gunnery was a precise science. He qualified as a second lieutenant and received a commission in the La Fère regiment in Valence.

This was a time of great unrest in France. There was widespread deprivation and the ostentatious wealth of the elite provoked resentment. King Louis XVI was a well-meaning but deeply conservative ruler and the nobility and church argued for repressive measures. Even though the national economy was struggling, the nobility paid few taxes and the establishment supported a system where the poor were kept in a state of near-feudal bondage with few rights and little prospect of improving their lot.

In 1789 rioting and protests turned into open rebellion, which eventually led to the king being deposed and executed. Although the National Assembly promised a fairer system, increasing fanaticism saw the nobility persecuted, with hundreds of aristocrats meeting their end upon the guillotine. This was a brutally efficient form of execution but the sight of so much bloodshed outraged and disgusted foreign observers. Fearing that violent revolution would spread, many European nations declared war on France as the Revolutionary Wars began in 1792. Surprisingly the fervour of France’s largely conscript-based armies proved difficult to overcome despite their lack of training and experience compared with the professional forces sent against them. Against all odds Republican France endured.

Napoleon Bonaparte as a young officer cadet at the École Militaire – André Castaigne.

Although Bonaparte broadly approved of the Revolution, the appalling violence he witnessed during riots in Paris in 1792 disturbed him. While he welcomed social change and realized the new system presented him with opportunities for advancement, he never forgot the senseless bloodshed he saw and he developed a well-founded fear of mob violence.

Initially an ardent Corsican nationalist, Bonaparte became embroiled in attempts to secure independence for the island but argued with the patriot General Pascal Paoli, eventually having to flee with his family to escape nationalist reprisals. Despite being the second son, he was acknowledged as the head of the family after his father’s death and settled them in the south of France. He did little for his homeland when he later became head of state, which strongly implies that he never forgave the nationalists for the mistreatment of his family.

Toulon was an important naval base in southern France but was under the control of Royalist rebels with British naval support and besieged by the French army in 1793. This siege provided a golden opportunity for Bonaparte after a series of mundane garrison appointments. It is notable that he was a highly political soldier during his early career and he used his contacts to ensure his appointment and gain more influence than an artillery captain would usually be permitted. After familiarizing himself with the port’s defences, Bonaparte realized that the key to taking Toulon lay in seizing the heights overlooking its south-western approaches. Once the forts there were captured, French artillery could drive off the Royal Navy and Toulon would fall without naval support. General Dugommier, who commanded the siege, recognized the young officer’s ability and allowed him to plan an assault.

The attack was an overwhelming success but Bonaparte received a stab wound from a British sergeant’s pike during the hand-to-hand fighting when the French stormed the forts. He ordered artillery batteries placed on the heights to fire red-hot shot at the British ships below, which rapidly withdrew and the port fell on 19 December 1793. Bonaparte was made General of Brigade for his efforts, a remarkably swift promotion for a 24-year-old. A jealous officer supposedly taunted him after Toulon, saying that he should enjoy his success while it lasted but Bonaparte dryly replied ‘Glory may be fleeting but obscurity lasts forever’.

In Paris, Robespierre, the primary architect of revolutionary terror, was ousted and executed. Due to his connections with Robespierre, Bonaparte was imprisoned but soon released. Although he had excelled at Toulon, further commands proved elusive and Bonaparte endured a frustrating period of unemployment on half pay in Paris. The Directory government now ruled France and he made the acquaintance of the influential politician Paul Barras. Yet many were discontent with the government and another opportunity for distinction arose when a royalist uprising threatened to overthrow the Directory. He persuaded Barras to give him command of government forces, secured forty cannon from the Camp des Sablons on the edge of Paris and placed these guns carefully to defend against an imminent attack.

On 5 October 1795 a well-armed counter-revolutionary mob around 20,000 strong marched on the Tuileries Palace where the government was based. Bonaparte’s command was vastly outnumbered so he took decisive action, ordering his infantry to open fire with massed musketry. Firing cannon into the angry mob crowding in the narrow streets saw dozens of rioters cut down. Fighting raged for a while but superior firepower prevailed and between 500–1,000 Royalists were killed or wounded with only 20 soldiers killed in return. Bonaparte later referred to this ruthless but effective incident as a ‘whiff of grapeshot’. His reward for saving the government was promotion to Chief of the Army of the Interior.

Shortly after crushing the uprising, Bonaparte fell in love with a woman six years older than himself. Born Marie Rose Josephine Tascher de la Pagerie, she was a widow with two children (Eugène and Hortense). General Alexandre de Beauharnais had been her husband but was guillotined during the Terror and she came close to sharing his fate. While a forceful and charismatic man, Bonaparte was inexperienced in romance and unaware of her recent lovers who included Barras. He became passionately devoted to her despite the disapproval of his family and chose to call her by her third name – Josephine.

The Little Corporal, 1796–1799

As a result of his recent successes, Bonaparte was appointed Commander in Chief of the Army of Italy. The campaign in Italy, which was considered a sideshow compared to that of the Army of the Rhine, was going nowhere and the army was poorly supplied. It needed someone who was both a skilled commander and an inspirational figure as morale was low. Despite his pale complexion, Bonaparte certainly looked the part of the young revolutionary general with shoulder-length hair, slim build and being just under average height. Many found his dark eyes and intense personality mesmerizing and his aura of confidence and determination to succeed became obvious to all who met him.

He married Josephine in a civil ceremony on 9 March 1796 and the newlyweds had only a short time together before he left for Italy. Both hoped to profit from their union. She knew Bonaparte was a rising star in the army and destined for a great career and wealth while he valued her skill as a socialite in the Parisian salons and contacts with many influential people. Yet this was no mere marriage of convenience as Bonaparte wrote her love letters on an almost daily basis and their contents left Josephine in no doubt of his passionate feelings for her. However, she continued with her love affairs almost as soon as he left, to the scandal of those within her social circle as she was far from discreet.

In the Italian campaign Bonaparte showed his true brilliance as a commander and he began by displaying an extraordinary ability to inspire his troops, promising them provisions and money from the provinces he intended to conquer. He swiftly took the offensive, bringing the Kingdom of Piedmont to the negotiating table after only ten days of fighting at the Armistice of Cherasco on 28 April 1796. He then attacked the Austrians (who occupied most of the Italian states) with speed and manoeuvre dominating his approach and he formulated strategies that served him well in the years to come. Between late March 1796 and October 1797 he won numerous battles, including Montenotte, Millesimo, Mondovi, Castiglione, Arcola, Rivoli and Mantua. Although a lack of troops denied him a decisive victory, the Austrians were unnerved by French aggression and swift marches, which resulted in them being chased out of Italy rather than beaten. Austria agreed terms in April 1797 and Italy fell under French control.

It was in Italy that Bonaparte’s soldiers gave him the affectionate nickname le Petit Caporal (the Little Corporal). Historians argue over this epithet’s origin but there are two credible versions, the first being that he received the nickname at the Battle of Lodi where he personally positioned and laid several cannon (traditionally a corporal’s task). The second is that it referred to his willingness to hazard his life like a private soldier when he personally led a charge over a bridge at the Battle of Arcola and came close to being killed. Interestingly, the nickname does not refer to his height as it is a myth that Napoleon was short. Most sources agree that he was just over 1.65m (5ft 5in) or as much as 1.70m (5ft 7in). This was just under average male height at the time and derisive comments about his supposedly short stature probably began in British propaganda cartoons.

Returning from Italy, Bonaparte was feted as a hero. The government was dangerously short of money and approved of the way he had ‘made war pay for itself’ during the campaign by demanding reparations in peace treaties and bringing back valuable works