Autonomous and Connected Heavy Vehicle Technology

Autonomous and Connected Heavy Vehicle Technology presents the fundamentals, definitions, technologies, standards and future developments of autonomous and connected heavy vehicles. This book provides insights into various issues pertaining to heavy vehicle technology and helps users develop solutions towards autonomous, connected, cognitive solutions through the convergence of Big Data, IoT, cloud computing and cognition analysis. Various physical, cyber-physical and computational key points related to connected vehicles are covered, along with concepts such as edge computing, dynamic resource optimization, engineering process, methodology and future directions.

The book also contains a wide range of case studies that help to identify research problems and an analysis of the issues and synthesis solutions. This essential resource for graduate-level students from different engineering disciplines such as automotive and mechanical engineering, computer science, data science and business analytics combines both basic concepts and advanced level content from technical experts.

• Covers state-of-the-art developments and research in vehicle sensor technology, vehicle communication technology, convergence with emerging technologies, and vehicle software and hardware integration
• Addresses challenges such as optimization, real-time control systems for distance and steering mechanism, and cognitive and predictive analysis
• Provides complete product development, commercial deployment, technological and performing costs and scaling needs

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Jan 18, 2022
• ISBN: 9780323907156

Book preview

Section 1

Review articles

Chapter 1: Lightweight and heavyweight technologies for autonomous vehicles: A survey

Kriti Sharmaa; Usman Naeemb; Rajalakshmi Krishnamurthic; Adarsh Kumara    a Department of Systemics, School of Computer Science, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, India

b School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom

c Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India

Abstract

In this chapter, a survey of light and heavy vehicle technology is conducted covering theoretical and practical issues in vehicle design, their maintenance, and future systems. The survey reviews information on technological advancements for vehicles including Internet connectivity with four-wheel drive and steering, automated locks, petrol and diesel operation control through IoT devices, automated vehicle performance measurements, and operation measurements and control for vehicle systems including ignition and starter, emission control, suspension, and gearboxes. This study gives a descriptive analysis of the type of equipment required for highly efficient heavy vehicles. In addition, the infrastructure needs and advancement plans are discussed in detail. The infrastructure plans include the type of equipment, roads, traffic measurement, and traffic control system details. This survey is important for computer science and mechanical engineers to learn more about the recent vehicle technology usage and future challenges. Accordingly, new equipment and systems can be designed to address on-road requirements. For example, the increased usage of on-road power and fuel vehicles has a negative impact on the environment. Thus there is a strong need to propose environmentally friendly solutions that emphasize reducing the usage of natural fuel sources and stress the need for engineers and scientists to develop better automobile technological solutions. This study lists all recent advancements in vehicle technology that control hazardous emissions to the environment, to keep the environment safe. Further, those recent system designs are discussed that enhance the on-road vehicle systems while keeping environmental issues in consideration. This study includes the need for ecofriendly planning, designs, and implementation concerns for safety, as well as a pleasant on-road driving experience.

Keywords

Attack detection and prevention; Autonomous driving; Blockchain; Motion detection; Object detection and avoidance; Security; Vehicle motion

1: Lightweight sensor technology for automated and connected heavy vehicles

Automation refers to the procedure that converts a manual process to an automatic one with little or no human intervention at the processing unit, data center, or the cloud. Ranging from manufacturing units, utilities, defense, and operations applications, automation has made a significant mark in transportation as well. Advancements in robotics, artificial intelligence, telemetry, electrooptics, and sensors have increased the significant acceptance of automation in automobiles [1–3]. The definition of light and heavy vehicles varies from country to country. According to the National Heavy Vehicle Regulator (NHVR) in Australia, a heavy vehicle has a gross vehicle mass (GVM) or aggregate trailer mass (ATM) of more than 4.5 tonnes. GVM is the maximum load a vehicle can carry or be allowed to carry. Thus it is measured when the vehicle is fully loaded. Examples of a heavy vehicle include passenger buses, semi-trailers, B-double freight trucks, livestock and agriculture vehicles, and mobile cranes.

1.1: Lightweight and heavyweight sensors for vehicular technology

Sensors critically synthesize responses from real-time inputs from hardware equipment such as cameras, radar, or ultrasonic sensors and the processed signals respond by changing gears, speed, and direction along with maintaining safety as the prime objective of an autonomous vehicle. Sensors have revolutionized the automotive industry. Embedded sensors can focus on precision, comfort, and safety along with more ease for drivers while driving and parking the vehicle. Input variables are processed and modified to perform assigned tasks of automated vehicles with the help of actuators like motors or electromagnetic valves for brake and steering control units [4–6]. Lightweight sensors are distinguished from heavyweight sensors in terms of memory and processing usages. Also, developmental phases are run in parallel for lightweight sensors, while the developmental phases are sequential for heavyweight sensor technology. The lightweight sensor has been redesigned to reduce mass along with the scan angle (in interactive mode or batch mode), which leads to image generation at the X-axis (angle), Y-axis (scan variable), and Z-axis (intensity) with each varying grade (ranges from Grade 1 to Grade 5). Due to less design complexity, they are the first choice for customizable and commercial devices due to their high adaptation for innovation and experimenting. They also offer elasticity in functionalities along with ability to preserve sensitivity. Heavyweight sensors are more suitable for sophisticated and complicated environments. Many giant players like General Motors, Honda, Waymo, Ford, Volkswagen, Cruise Automation (acquired by General Motors), Volvo, and the Daimler partnership with Uber and BMW with Intel (Mobileye division) are ready to step into the AVT (autonomous vehicle technology) sector with advanced and competing functionalities, using recent techniques like artificial intelligence [7].

Automated vehicles are trying their best to fit smoothly into this technological revolution and various sensors are contributing to this effort. The following nine components are essentially assembled to transform a basic vehicle into AVT (autonomous vehicle technology), transferring the driving responsibility to sensors to quite a large extent (this has taken place from 1960 until today, and will continue into the future):

(a)Global positioning systems (GPS): Navigation and possible recommendation of the route require accurate coordinates of the vehicle location and road.

(b)Camera: Provides a 360 degrees rotational view of the surroundings of the vehicle.

(c)Light detection and ranging sensors (lidar): This continuously senses the surroundings in a 3D viewscape with a strong focus and high accuracy.

(d)Radio detection and ranging sensors (radar): This catches distant objects and instantaneous environmental and climatic fluctuations, thus helping ATV to make instant decisions, especially in brake assist systems (BAS).

(e)Infrared sensors: Acceleration of the vehicle is handled by electronic throttle control while safe parking of the vehicle is the responsibility of ultrasound or electromagnetic detection sensors. The health of the engine and components related to it are regulated by crankshaft sensors. Thermistor sensors regulate the temperature of the vehicle based on the comfort of the driver.

(f)Inertial navigation system (INS): This helps to record even the smallest movement and map it accordingly to the map.

(g)Dedicated short-range communication (DSRC): It helps in examining, reporting, and responding to near-time road conditions like congestion on the road or environmental impacts on the road.

All these components allow clear navigation, hurdle-free paths, response to obstacles, and dynamic routing in a strict controller area network (CAN). Ghandriz et al. [8] discussed the technological barriers for automated driving systems for on-road real-time application feasibility and analysis. Various factors that are important to realize for automated vehicle movement include vehicle mobility, outcome-based productivity, logistics planning, and fuel and energy consumption for safe and reliable movements. The possibilities of heavy vehicle movement are explored to emphasize increasing heavy vehicle productivity, reducing the energy consumption requirements, and fulfilling the requirements for transportation. This study has explored the possibilities of electric heavy vehicles. Various sub-system functionalities are discussed briefly in this chapter (like propulsion systems). Various approaches are necessary to analyze for reducing the human driving effort and optimizing vehicle performance [9–11]. Here, different transportation scenarios are discussed that show the effects of travel distance, road hills, and vehicle speed and size. All these factors include electrification, automation, and combustion-powered heavy vehicle systems. Different types of vehicles are considered for analysis with detailed statistical derivations. These derivations are found to be effective for optimizing performance. Thus optimization approaches are useful for analyzing the sensor devices and sub-systems derived using these sensors. Alghodhaifi and Lakshmanan [12] realized that the safety of automated vehicles includes various factors like on-road conditions, weather conditions, type and number of sensors integrated with the vehicle, and vehicle capacity. In real-time on-road heavy vehicle movement systems, heavy vehicles are either dependent on lidar, radar, and/or camera-based systems for safety and collision-free travel to targeted destinations. The safety measures that can be incorporated for pedestrian-vehicle collision avoidance include systems such as pedestrian protection systems (PPSs), pedestrian classification time-to-collision (PCT), and post-encroachment (PET). Alghodhaifi and Lakshmanan [12] have conducted simulations for proving their concept of collision avoidance mechanisms. This work has identified that pedestrian walking and running in front of automated vehicles can be detected and collisions can be avoided using various sensor devices. In their results, sensor simulations were performed, and their failure conditions were tested with multiple high-impact test conditions. In observations, it was found that the proposed physics-based safety model was effective in real-world scenarios with detailed safety analysis [13].

Likewise, there are many sensors useful for heavy vehicles. Fig. 1.1 shows the vehicle system’s block diagram. In this system, the important sub-systems include the engine’s powertrain model/system, which provides torque to the front-wheel system and rear-wheel system. A brake system is also attached with a wheel system to control the operations. The functionalities of wheel and tire systems direct the vehicle body system.

Fig. 1.1

Fig. 1.1 Vehicle system block diagram. Credit: Author creation.

Fig. 1.2 shows the vehicle control system. Here, a driver uses the vehicle’s sensors to operate and control. The driver must see the important states (driver, vehicle, and road) and balance the vehicle’s operation. In automated vehicles, different types of sensors are used that sense the environment and other conditions and notify the control system. Thus a wide variety of sensors are used in different vehicles [11]. A list of important categories where sensors are useful for heavy vehicles is as follows [14].

•Sensors for Engine Management: Heavy equipment transportation applications for heavy vehicles use various highly efficient sensors [15–18]. The automotive sensors used in heavy vehicles combine Amphenol Advanced Sensors that take advantage of the sensor’s capability in automotive sensing applications. Sensors used in heavy vehicles improve the heavy equipment or vehicle’s lifetime, efficiency, safety, environmental compliance, and operational costs [14]. Various types of sensors used in heavy vehicles and their features are:

○Coolant Temperature Sensors: This type of sensor is popularly used in electric vehicles or plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, i.e., electrical vehicles having the capability of battery replacement or a recharging option by plugging it into the external source of electric power. The coolant template sensor signals the battery management system in case the battery module starts to overheat. This overheating signal helps in improving the vehicle’s damage and improves the vehicle and equipment’s performance and lifetime.

○Chip Thermistor in Eyelet Tag: This type of thermistor is useful in measuring surface temperatures using insulated flexible wires (typical wire length varies from 50 to 2000 mm) and an eyelet tag. In heavy vehicles, chip thermistors are used in semi-conductor heatsinks and enclosure panels. Chip thermistors in the eyelet tag may have sensing elements electrically isolated from the tag. In this category of thermistors, the eyelets fit with M3, M4, and M5 types of screw sizes in heavy vehicles.

○Midrange Temperature Probe: This type of temperature probe works in a wide variety of temperature applications (such as small home appliances, detection of high temperature in oven sensors, boilers, and coffee makers) for industrial usage. The material used to build such probes may include stainless steel, brass, nickel-plated copper, etc. The wires used to attach to these probes may be silicon wires, polytetrafluoroethylene, fiberglass insulation, etc. The temperature of such probes may vary from − 4°F to 572°F. This very broad temperature range allows the probes to be useful in many mounting options.

○Harsh Environment Temperature Sensor: This type of sensor is designed to handle all aspects of temperature measurements for HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) systems. This type of sensor is useful at various compressors, condensing units, heat pumps, and air conditioning. This is further used to enhance the sensor’s ability in ingression and degradation, and it is useful for temperature measurement and improvements in performances. This type of sensor has the capability to resist salt solutions, ozone, UV rays, and marine environment cleaning detergents. The temperature tolerance rating is ± 0.2°C and ± 0.15°C.

○Noise Immune Ring Terminal Temperature Sensor: The noise immune ring terminal temperature sensor is used for surface temperature measurements with a radiofrequency decoupling function. This type of sensor is specially designed to prevent AC currents generated from resonant electromagnetic interference (EMI). Additionally, these sensors are coupled with a wiring harness and cause nuisance self-heating of the NTC element. In heavy vehicles, these sensors are used in lithium-ion batteries and thermistor probes with a ring lug can be attached securely to a battery terminal for effective monitoring of the battery temperature. The application and potting of these sensors vary and can be customized for variable requirements.

○Inline Flow-through Fluid Temperature Sensor: This type of sensor monitors the temperature of the fluid that passes through its contact. As it is necessary to control the temperature of the overall system, the sensor measures the temperature reading and passes the signal to all control loop elements to control the overall system temperature and temperature at multiple points. The multiple points may include engine, heater, industrial supply, and every other point where temperatures need to be monitored. Various other features of this type of sensor include its unique flow-through design, support for a wide range of applications, being proven for field support of heavy vehicle technology, being well-protected from fluid or any leak paths, working with <±1°C accuracies and temperature variations between + 80°C to − 40°C, and very high sensitivity. In heavy vehicle technology, these sensors are widely used for engine coolant temperature control, water management, battery-pack coolant line temperature maintenance, home appliances, and measuring process flows. Various examples of these sensors from Amphenol (as shown in Fig. 1.3) are GE-1935, GE-2102, GE-2103 [19]. All of these types of sensors have different specifications and usage for different types of machinery used in heavy vehicles.

Fig. 1.2

Fig. 1.2 Vehicle control system block diagram. Credit: Author creation.

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Fig. 1.3 Amphenol GE-1935/GE-2102/GE-2103 inline flow-through fluid temperature sensor. Credit: DigiKey GE-1935/GE-2102/GE-2103—Amphenol | DigiKey, n.d. https://www.digikey.com/en/product-highlight/a/amphenol-advanced-sensors/ge-1935-ge-2102-ge-2103-inline-flow-through-fluid-temperature-sensors (Accessed 14 April 2021).

○General Fluid Temperature Sensor: This is another fluid temperature sensor that measures and monitors the temperature of a variety of fluids used for vehicular technologies. As compared to any specific series of the fluid sensors, this sensor is easy to install and remove and can be used for battery, refrigerant, outside air, and engine coolant temperature measurements. Fig. 1.4 shows a simple example of the GE-2133 series of the general fluid temperature sensors. Different types of fluid temperature sensors have different temperature, resistance, and tolerance limits.

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Fig. 1.4 GE-2133 series of general fluid temperature sensors. Credit: [20, 21].

○Outside Air Temperature Sensor: This type of temperature sensor is widely used for monitoring ambient air temperatures in outdoor applications. For example, in heavy vehicle technologies, outside air temperature sensors are used for measuring the temperatures outside the passenger compartment and are mounted inside or near the front bumper. After measuring the outside temperature, this type of sensor helps in providing input to an automatic HVAC system to control the automobile vehicle’s internal temperature. Thus these types of sensors are helpful for drivers or passengers to take temperature readings from outside the vehicle and are helpful in extreme conditions, such as measuring the outside temperature in near-freezing or freezing conditions. A series of outside air sensors exists that can be used at different places for outside temperature and humidity measurements [20] (Fig. 1.5).

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Fig. 1.5 Amphenol’s ambient air temperature sensor. Credit: Amphenol Advanced Sensors | Sensor Products and Technologies for Innovative Embedded Measurement Solutions, n.d. https://www.amphenol-sensors.com/en (Accessed 14 April 2021).

○HVAC Refrigerant Temperature Sensor: This type of sensor is used to measure the refrigerant temperature on both low- and high-pressure sides. Additionally, a control module is required to maximize the performance of the HVAC. The major usage of this type of sensor is at the condenser and receiver unit side for high-pressure measurement, the evaporator side for measuring the low-pressure refrigerant line temperature, and the battery coolant temperature. These sensors are well known for high accuracy, long-term stability, fast response time, field-proven design, and operating capacity up to 100°C temperature.

○Intake Air Temperature Sensor: In heavy vehicle transportation, intake air temperature sensors are also used for monitoring the temperature of the air entering or exiting the engine. The statistics related to temperature density are required for keeping the balance of the air and fuel mixture. Air can be considered cold or hot. Cold air is denser and consumes more fuel to maintain the air/fuel ratio. Some specialized sensors such as mass airflow (MAF) sensors have an inbuilt intake air temperature sensor. Thus, they can be used for monitoring the volume of air entering the engine.

○Oil Temperature Sensor: This type of sensor measures the temperature of engine oil and can help in displaying the statistics as well. Thus, this sensor helps give an indication that if the vehicle is operating at a very high temperature then it would be dangerous or may cause irreparable damage. Oil temperature sensors help in stopping the vehicle in such circumstances by switching off the engine. Like other sensors, this sensor has high accuracy and long-term stability, fast response time, a comparatively smaller size, an effective design, and a sealed body connector.

○Engine Temperature Sensor: This is another type of temperature sensor that changes its resistance to temperature. This sensor helps measure various vehicle statistics such as air-fuel ratio, fuel injection timing, and ignition time. Thus this sensor helps measure the temperature of coolant, oil, and fuel in an engine.

○Stainless Steel Sensor with Flying Leads: This sensor helps the vehicle parts survive vibration rigors including in automotive, small gas engine, and outboard engine applications. Fig. 1.6 shows a stainless steel sensor with flying leads. The major applications of this sensor include outboard marine engines, automotive engines, HVAC chillers and boilers, and it may be suited for any type of application where a moisture-resistant threaded probe is required.

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Fig. 1.6 Stainless steel sensor with flying leads. Credit: Amphenol Advanced Sensors | Sensor Products and Technologies for Innovative Embedded Measurement Solutions, n.d. https://www.amphenol-sensors.com/en (Accessed 14 April 2021).

○Water Temperature Sensor: This type of sensor is useful for monitoring the temperature of the coolant. Thus it is helpful for coolant that lies closer to the engine block and it notifies the driver if the engine overheats. Therefore it assists in deciding to stop the vehicle and switch off the engine.

○Exhaust Gas Recycle Temperature Sensor: This type of sensor helps measure the temperature of multiple locations in a diesel engine. Exhaust gas recycle temperature sensors can be high-temperature or low-temperature sensors. A high-temperature sensor is useful in the exhaust gas and a low-temperature one is useful in the intake air stream. This sensor can give a fast response, optimizing the thermal dissipation in the vehicle, and it works in high vibrations as well and can operate in corrosive environments.

○Exhaust Gas High-Temperature Sensor: In the engine control strategy, this type of temperature sensor monitors the temperature before and after operations of the engine control strategy. Like other temperature sensors, this sensor also can generate a fast response, optimizing the thermal dissipation in the vehicle, and it can operate in corrosive environments.

○Cylinder Head Temperature Sensor: This sensor also works in notification operation to the vehicle’s driver. It is usually placed at cylinder head bolts and can measure the cylinder head temperature. Notifications of this temperature are sent to the driver in emergency cases.

○Combination Sensor: This sensor is a smart combination of an intake manifold sensor capable of providing measurements that include relative humidity, temperature, and pressure statistics.

○Other temperature sensors: Like the temperature sensors discussed already, many temperature sensors can be used for different purposes. For example, an ambient air temperature sensor measures the temperature outside the ambiance of the passenger compartment (e.g., outside a bus or car) and gives readings internal to the passenger compartment. Thus this sensor is useful for drivers in extreme conditions. It has a low price, high sensitivity, compact design, and wide application usages. The Accusolve diesel particulate filter soot sensor is another advanced sensor used for measuring soot in the diesel particulate filter. In these measurements, radio technology is widely used, which in turn allows for providing real-time soot loading data and closed-loop control. The soot loading measurements are used to optimize and reduce the regeneration cycles of the diesel particulate filter. In both active and passive generation systems, this type of sensor is useful for improving the fuel economy. Further, it is also helpful in closing the loop where pollutants absorb radio-frequency energy. These sensors are found to be effective for marine or rail diesel particulate filters. The transmission fluid temperature sensor measures the transmission fluid’s temperature. Thus it helps in automatic transmission of fuels to different places inside a vehicle. Further, this sensor can be extended for over-temperature protection by locking the torque convertor. This sensor has a twist and lock design, which makes installation much easier and provides anti-rotation locking. The Fuel Temperature Sensor is used to measure the vehicle fuel’s temperature. This information is then passed to the engine control unit for ensuring the air-to-fuel mix ratio. Indirectly, this sensor helps to maximize the vehicle’s efficiency, optimize the combustion process, reduce pollutants, and maintain the air-to-fuel ratio. Sensors can be used for fuel or coolant temperature. The motor coil temperature sensor measures the temperature of the motor coil by measuring the motor windings temperature and the current that indicates a failure in the system, and by generating alarms in over-temperature conditions. Thus this is an important sensor having a motor coil and motor protection mechanism, and is helpful in industrial automation and control. A battery pack temperature sensor is an advanced sensor that measures the battery pack’s surface temperature for overcharging protection and optimizing the battery’s performance. This sensor is useful for customers to gain confidence in the battery reliability and stability. It is highly insulation resistant and provides a fast time response. The compact thermistor design in the ring terminal connector provides high accuracy as well. The intake air temperature sensor is also an advanced temperature measurement sensor. There are different types of these sensors. For example, the A-1325/A-1326 series of intake air temperature sensors are types of sensors that measure the temperature of incoming intake airflow of an engine and provide signal output. The signal can be used as an input for a temperature gauge or engine control unit. This type of sensor in a heavy vehicle is to provide optimized and efficient combustion. The GE-1856 series of intake air temperature sensors monitors the temperature of the intake for the engine and generates a signal output used in the engine control unit to adjust fuel delivery and optimize the air-to-fuel ratio. This series of sensors can be used for air duct temperature measurement.

○NTC Thermistors: This series of sensors is suitable for PCB and probe mountings with high sensitivity to change in temperature. The operating range varies from − 58°F to 302°F. For example, Radial Lead Type SA is a low-cost solid-state sensor with accuracy that varies between 0°C and 120°C. This sensor is available for a wide range of resistance values and is feasible for use in providing an epoxy coating. In conclusion, the NTC thermistor series of sensors is mainly suitable for temperature measurement, control, and compensation. In this series, a wide variety of sensors exist, like the Radial Lead Type RL35/40/45, Radial Lead Type RL30, Radial Lead Type RL20, Radial Lead Type RL14, and Radial Lead Type RL10. The functionality of these sensors is almost the same. However, there are differences in manufacturing or minor application domains. For example, NTC Thermistor Radial Lead Type RL35/40/45 consists of a point-matched disc thermistor. This disc is extended with bare lead wires.

○Leadless Chip: NTC thermometric lead chips are usually compact. In heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems, leadless chip sensors are widely used for various purposes, including automotive, white goods, temperature measurement and control, and compensation. This type of sensor offers flexibility in resist values, provides tolerance, indicates temperature references, has a variety of sizes, and is suitable for wire bonding.

○Harsh Environment CR1: Thermometric type CR1 NTC chip thermistors are tin-coated alloy S2 leads and have the capability to resist high-performance acid and moisture. This type of sensor can be used in harsh environments and associated applications. This sensor is usually used to interconnect those vehicle parts which are large in size. This sensor has applications in different parts of a vehicle, including automotive, battery, and HVAC. Additionally, these sensors can be used for military, industrial, healthcare, and marine applications. The compact size, high performance with good stability, insulation resistance, accurate temperature measurement, tight tolerance, and fast response time make this sensor suitable for multiple usages.

○Glass TG Series-Glass-Sealed Radial: In transportation systems, this sensor is used for automotive, heating and cooling of devices, boiler systems, and boiler appliances because of its waterproof and oilproof design, resistance to high temperatures, and high accuracy values. Additionally, the tin and nickel-plated option is always available for this sensor, to make it an advanced sensor for multiple usages.

○Glass Miniature Series: This sensor offers a range of miniature thermoprobes having a large bead thermistor. A solid glass rod, long-term stability, and high reliability make this type of sensor more useful for vehicular and transportation systems. There are different series of this sensor, including P20/P25/P30 and P60/P65/P85/P100. The P20/P25/P30 series of sensor types has longer body length and these sensor types are more suited for applications that require fast response and immersion and handle fluids in a very efficient way. Another series of sensors (P60/P65/P85/P100) is suitable for general-purpose usage. These sensors are used in temperature measurement, control circuit temperature compensation, and fluid flow-sensing features.

○Glass HTP Series-High Temperature Probe: These sensors have a bead thermistor hermetically sealed tip, which is a shock-resistant glass rod. This sensor is in use because of its features like excellent stability for all temperatures at or below 842°F. The major applications of this sensor are temperature measurement, control, and compensation, and process oven control.

○Glass Diode: This type of sensor has glass-encapsulated NTC thermistors with a range of NTC chips in a DO-35 style glass package. The sensor’s features, like seal and voltage insulation, accurate temperature measurement, control, and compensation automotive, make it suitable for a variety of applications in automotive, telecom, HVAC systems, and other goods. The applications are useful for automotive, telecom, HVAC, white goods, appliances (electric ranges, ovens, cookers), and industrial product components, which may include products from pharmaceuticals, and food.

○Epoxy Type NKI Noise Immune: This sensor has an inbuilt radio-frequency decoupling function and electromagnetic interference component with wide-frequency ranges. The importance of these sensors increases for modern vehicles because of the increasing complexities in the electric systems. There are a wide range of sensors used and the density of electronic components increases with conventional NTC thermistor sensors. The self-heating capability of this sensor protects the complete system from vulnerable electromagnetic interference. In application, this sensor is beneficial for existing automotive upgrades, drive systems, HVAC, and air intake or coolant operations.

○Epoxy Type Thermistors: Epoxy-coated thermistors are advanced types of sensors that can be used in vehicular and transportation systems for different purposes, based on their types (Epoxy Type NK, Epoxy Type NDP, Epoxy Type NDM, Epoxy Type NDL, Epoxy Type NDK, and Epoxy Type C100). Usually, these sensors operate below 150°C. These sensors are used in a wide range of resistances. Therefore sensors suitable for automotive, HVAC, and white goods applications include the NDK, NDL, and NDM series, whereas sensors suitable for PCB and probe mounting involve the MS series. The difference between the different series of epoxy thermistors lies in the manufacturing process and material, and the usage environment. Fig. 1.7 shows the different epoxy-type thermistors.

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Fig. 1.7 Epoxy-type thermistors. Credit: Amphenol Advanced Sensors | Sensor Products and Technologies for Innovative Embedded Measurement Solutions, n.d. https://www.amphenol-sensors.com/en (Accessed 14 April 2021).

○IP67 Harsh Environment Humidity and Temperature Sensor: This type of sensor can work in a harsh environment combining humidity and temperature sensors supplied in a water-resistant IP67 package. The material used and manufacturing makes this sensor useful for different applications requiring effective sensing solutions for any type of harsh environment. In HVAC control applications, this sensor can be integrated with air conditioning, refrigerator, indoor air quality control, vent fans, home appliances, and humidifiers-based systems. In the process and control instrumentation process, the sensor can be best fit for medical instruments, handheld devices, weather monitoring and analysis stations, food processing systems, and RFID-based applications.

○Relative Humidity Sensor: This type of sensor is widely used for cost-effective humidity and temperature sensing solutions for various applications. The different series in humidity sensors include: Telaire HS30P, Telaire HS20, Telaire HS12SP, Telaire ChipCap 2-SIP, and Telaire ChipCap 2. These series and their sensors have different capabilities, materials, and applications. For example, the Telaire HS30P series has the bulk-resistance type of humidity sensor, which provides variable impedance. This sensor can respond to absorbed water within the sensor’s thin-film polymer. Likewise, different series work under different temperature ranges with variable accuracy values, cost-effectiveness, and resistance to extreme conditions.

○Surface Mount Pressure Sensors: This type of sensor is used for PCB mounting. They are available in tape or reel form for simplifying the manufacturing processes. As these sensors are supportive, they are made cost-effective for wider usage in applications that require calibrated performances. For example NPA range of sensors re cost-effective and available in absolute and differential pressure ranges. These sensors are surface-mountable and tolerate 60 psi proof pressure.

○Filtration Air Restriction Sensor: This sensor accurately measures the pressure loss. The easy-to-install and maintenance-free feature makes this sensor available for vehicles easily. In vehicles, this type of sensor can be installed in engine air filtration systems, cabin pressure control systems, HVAC pressure control systems, exhaust pressure systems, and various industrial filtration