Agricultural Research: What Has It Done For You?

By Gale A. Buchanan

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH:

Important for each of us

The population of the planet has increased by more than 7 billion since the initiation of formal agricultural research in 1843. While there are many reasons that contribute to this phenomenal growth in population, the availability of food is certainly one of the key factors. The success

• Language: English
• Publisher: Palmetto Publishing
• Release date: Apr 22, 2022
• ISBN: 9781638378075

Gale A. Buchanan

Gale A. Buchanan is the Former USDA Chief Scientist and Undersecretary of Agriculture for Research, Education, and Economics. In his early career, he was a teacher and research professor of weed science at Auburn University and ultimately Dean and Director of the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station. He then served at the University of Georgia, where he was appointed as Dean and Director of the College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences. Now retired, Gale has written and published several books. Unexpected Chef is his most recent book.

Book preview

Preface

It seemed to me that when a person gets old and looks back over his life, what is important in it is not prestige or the amount of money in the bank, but rather whether or not he feels that his life has been useful. If he has been able to contribute, even in some small way, to making it possible for people to live lives that are more satisfying to them than they might otherwise have been, that, it seems to me, is probably the most meaningful of all life's satisfactions.

—John A. Hannah, President (1941–69),Michigan State University

T

OWARD THE END OF LIFE, MOST THOUGHTFUL PEOPLE THINK about what they have contributed to society and the human species. This is often coupled with concern about their profession and how it has contributed to the well-being of humankind. We, as agricultural scientists, are similar to most other people in that we often contemplate the same question.

This book was written to foster a better understanding and appreciation of how agricultural research has contributed to society and benefited the human species. The specific purpose of this book is to illustrate the importance of agricultural research and to show how each person on this planet has benefited from the effort of agricultural scientists. Each agricultural scientist and support staff should know they contributed in some way to this successful effort.

This book will provide the average person an opportunity to become more knowledgeable about agricultural research and how each of us benefits from this endeavor. It will enable each individual to answer the question, What has agricultural research done for you? As our civilization continues to evolve, there are increasingly fewer people who have knowledge, appreciation, and understanding of our food production system.

Although adequate food is necessary for each of us to survive, the world has evolved in such a manner that, in some countries, the importance of food is not highly valued. In most of the developed world, there is an abundance of food—in this country we toss out or waste about 40% of it.

In the US, a visit to most any major grocery store finds a plethora of food products. There are literally thousands of foods available from all over the world. Growing up on a farm, one could gauge the seasons—strawberries (early spring), watermelon and cantaloupes (late spring / early summer), and apples (early fall). Now, thanks to the airplane, we can have strawberries, watermelons, and cantaloupes all year because they are grown someplace on the planet. Research on controlled atmosphere storage (CA) makes apples and a few other crops available year-round.

Many countries have embarrassingly large overproduction of certain commodities. But the truth is there are some places in the world where there is not adequate food. Of course, the big question is, What happens in the future with increasing populations, climate and weather changes, political instability, pandemics, and other unknown factors? We are already experiencing some of these phenomenas in various parts of the world today. An old Chinese proverb says it all: A person who has food has many problems; a person who has no food has only one problem. I would add to this famous quote: A nation that is food secure has many problems; a nation that does not have food security must address this issue—or else it will fail.

I am grateful for the many research scientists and their staff, research administrators, and agricultural communicators for providing the multitude of research accomplishments and cultivar (plants that have been produced in cultivation by selective breeding) releases from their respective institutions. Without their support, this book would not be possible. Also, I’d like to thank Mrs. Leanne Chafin for her word processing skills as well as proofing the final draft. Mrs. Lesa Cox was especially helpful for assisting in correspondence with the many contributors to this book. Brad Buchanan deserves special recognition for his photographic skills in making the cover pictures for the book. Allen Van Deynze, Dave Kissel, and Rita Mumm deserve special thanks for their insightful comments, counsel, and review of portions of the manuscript.

Introduction

In science men have discovered an activity of the very highest value in which they are no longer, as in art, dependent for progress upon the appearance of continually greater genius, for in science the successors stand upon the shoulders of their predecessors; where one man of supreme genius has invented a method, a thousand lesser men can apply it…In art nothing worth doing can be done without genius; in science even a very moderate capacity can contribute to a supreme achievement.

—Bertrand Russell, from The Place of Science in a Liberal Education in Mysticism and Logic: and Other Essays (1918)

T

HE TITLE, AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH: WHAT HAS IT DONE FOR You? seeks to foster better recognition and lead to greater appreciation of the importance of agricultural research. Since the consumption of food is becoming increasingly distant from where it is produced, there is a decrease in the appreciation of agriculture in general. There is an even greater lack of appreciation and understanding of how agricultural research contributes to the success of agriculture.

The book Feeding the World presents a strong case for the importance of agricultural research and its contribution to the future well-being of our civilization (Buchanan 2016). Population dynamics of the planet illustrate the future need for food. However, it is important that for this expectation to be realized, individuals must be able to recognize benefits from this enterprise. This book shows how the US agricultural research system has touched and made lives better for each person in this country, as well as for many people around the world.

There are several approaches designed to enable each individual to be able to better understand what agricultural research has done for the human population. The first approach is a general discussion regarding the nature of the agricultural research enterprise. Included is a brief discussion of how agricultural research began and how it has evolved.

Another approach is presenting brief summaries of research accomplishments provided by each state agricultural experimental station in the US. These accomplishments in agricultural research will illustrate how they have contributed to a better life for each of us. Both 1862 and 1890 land-grant institutions, along with some non‑land-grant institutions, were invited to share some of their research accomplishments. In addition, the federal agricultural research agencies were invited to share some of their noteworthy accomplishments.

Still another approach is a compilation of a few of the major crop cultivars and genetic lines developed by each state agricultural experiment station. Especially important is the potential of this area of agricultural research for addressing the needs for the future.

To address the question What has agricultural research done for you? it is important to recognize that one must start at the local level. From the beginning, the founders of our agricultural research system envisioned that the first effort should be directed to solving local problems that hamper or in some way negatively impact agricultural production. While this effort certainly focused on applied problems in agriculture, it did not preclude more basic investigations. The breadth of the US agricultural support system includes a generation of new information, knowledge, and technology. The primary mission of the experiment station is research. Education is the purview of the teaching programs and taking information and knowledge to the producers where it can be applied to make a difference is the responsibility of cooperative extension.

Today, we clearly recognize that the future of agriculture will increasingly depend on basic research. However, this recognition is not new. Wilbur O. Atwater, director of the nation's first experiment station, the Connecticut station, made this statement in its first report: It has been felt from the first that more abstract scientific investigations would afford not only the proper, but also the most widely and permanently useful work of an Agricultural Experiment Station (Kerr 1987).

In this book, it will be shown not only how agricultural research has contributed to improved food security but also how such research impacts our lives in other ways. This book describes, in a general way, a few of the many successes of agricultural research and how individuals and society benefit from this effort. Unlike some important areas of scientific investigation that contribute to man's knowledge of the universe or helps us to understand various phenomenas, agricultural research has a direct and easily recognized effect on the lives of people. Expenditure of public money on agricultural research results in specific impacts on people that amply justify such funding.

Even though I am listed as the author of this book, in reality I am only compiling the successes of the research of many others. My effort has been to assemble a small sample of agricultural research accomplishments done by scientists in the nation's agricultural research institutions. Even this modest sample of accomplishments will enable a better understanding and appreciation of how research has enriched the lives of each of us.

This book illustrates how each person in the US and the world has benefited in some way from agricultural research. Each public US institution involved in agricultural research was invited to share some of their most notable accomplishments. The reports of cultivar releases add yet another important dimension to the accomplishments of agricultural research. Most cultivar successes are not evident to the average consumer. This includes cultivars that slightly increase yield or provide disease resistance or improve shipping. On the other hand, there are some cultivar releases that the average consumer can readily see and experience firsthand. These include such releases as the Honeycrisp apple, with its explosive crispness and juicier texture. Also, many cultivars of ornamental plants make a striking appearance. Quality of turf grasses are quite evident to the average homeowner, groundskeeper, and golfer or other athlete.

In any sampling process, it is not possible to expect each party to respond in the same manner. Obviously, many important research accomplishments will be left out. This shortcoming in no way diminishes the value of this effort. Very few institutions chose not to contribute. Also, some institutions took our request more seriously than others. Consequently, some institutions’ reports are quite comprehensive, while others are not.

In the US, the investment in agricultural research by industry surpasses that of public institutions. However, I have not tried to capture examples of accomplishments in agricultural research by industry. The success of agriculture in the US is closely tied to the close partnership between research by public institutions and private industry.

Success of agricultural research by industry generally shows up in the corporate bottom line. Most of the basic research conducted in public institutions as well as industry brings benefit to farmers and the public at large.

CHAPTER 1

Beginning of Agricultural Research

Civilization as it is known today could not have evolved, nor can it survive, without an adequate food supply.

—Norman Borlaug

D

URING THE TEN THOUSAND TO TWELVE THOUSAND YEARS THAT agriculture was evolving, it is likely there were many simple, informal experiments or demonstrations to solve problems affecting agriculture. Of course, the most powerful tool for early humans was simply the power of observation—assessing that this was better than that. Establishment of the Rothamsted Experimental Station in England in 1843 marks the initiation of formal agricultural research (Rothamsted Experimental Station 1977). Investigations in optics, mathematics, physics, botany, and chemistry were underway long before research was begun in agriculture. However, agricultural research has one distinct advantage over most other areas of investigation. Results of agricultural research often have an immediate and easily understood application with dramatic benefit for humans.

Soon after the establishment of the Rothamsted Experimental Station, efforts were made to develop research stations in various European countries. There were comparable efforts in several states in the US. Discussions about the need for research to support agriculture was a particularly timely topic. After a few false starts, legislation was passed by the US Congress providing for an agricultural research system. Such legislation was signed into law by President Grover Cleveland in 1887 (Buchanan 2016; Kerr 1989; True 1937).

Early developments brought about by research in the basic sciences were satisfying for the researcher and other scientists and greatly contributed to the base of scientific knowledge. For example, knowledge regarding the movement of the moon and planets and developments in mathematics hardly had an immediate effect on people's lives. On the other hand, since much early agricultural research was designed to answer specific questions or address specific problems in agricultural production, research success had instant recognition and an immediate impact.

Today, agricultural research includes and embraces many areas of investigation: plant and animal sciences, economic and social sciences, food science and technologies, climate and environmental sciences, and other areas. This topic will be discussed in greater depth in chapter 2.

Humans have employed slash-and-burn techniques in agriculture to clear land suitable for crops and food animals since Neolithic times. In slash-and-burn agriculture, forests are typically cut prior to the dry season, allowing the slash to dry, and then burned in the following dry season. The resulting ash provides some plant nutrients, thereby fertilizing the soil. The land is then ready for crop production in the next rainy season. While the resulting ash from the burn of the slash provides plant nutrients for a time, they are soon exhausted. Then, of course, this site must be abandoned, and a new site selected, then burned, followed by crops and starting the cycle over.

One of the early developments in chemistry and botany was discovering the specific role of plant nutrients in plant growth (Liebig 1840). This development clearly led to a new paradigm in agriculture. The role of plant nutrients and the nature of fertilizer material were keys in the establishment of the Rothamsted Agricultural Experimental Station. These fundamental findings led almost immediately to the idea of augmenting the land with plant nutrients—a process we now usually refer to as fertilization. Since this was a science-based process, use of fertilizer materials immediately called into question, Who could supply such material?

The concept of providing plant nutrients through fertilizer was a great business opportunity. This was certainly true, provided there was adequate quality assurance for nutrients in the fertilizer materials offered for sale. Unfortunately, this also provided an excellent opportunity for unscrupulous merchants. Indeed, this was one of the driving forces for establishing experiment stations in the US. Establishing the appropriate amount and quality of plant nutrients in fertilizer materials offered for sale was the primary goal of the Connecticut station—the nation's first agricultural experiment station.

The beginning of formal agricultural research occurred about the time of the transition of support for research by interested individuals to institutions. In fact, Rothamsted was initially founded by individuals, but soon after, the UK government began to provide support. Today, agricultural research is supported by national governments of most nations. In the US, agricultural research is supported by the federal government, state government, and, in some states, regional or municipal governments.

CHAPTER 2

Nature of the Agricultural Research Enterprise

At the heart of science is an essential balance between two seemingly contradictory attitudes—an openness to new ideas, no matter how bizarre or counterintuitive they may be, and the most ruthless skeptical scrutiny of all ideas, old and new. This is how deep truths are winnowed from deep nonsense.

—Carl Sagan, from The Demon-Haunted World:Science as a Candle in the Dark (1997)

W

ITHOUT EXCEPTION, ALL ANIMALS, INCLUDING HUMANS, REQUIRE nourishment. The evolution of the human population from existence as nomadic hunters and gatherers to a more sedentary lifestyle was made possible by the development of agriculture. Although the specific time frame is somewhat debatable, the domestication of plants and animals probably began ten thousand to twelve thousand years ago. Even as agriculture was evolving, humans were still close to their source of food. As recently as the founding of the United States, in 1776, most people lived on a farm and were close to their food source. At that time, more than 90% of the US population lived in rural areas that were primarily devoted to farming. This is in sharp contrast to today, where an increasingly greater percentage of the population lives in cities and towns, a trend which may accelerate in the future. Some communities are already increasing the density of people to minimize the loss of productive lands for farms and other uses. As a result, there are increasingly fewer opportunities for the average person to appreciate or even to understand where their food comes from, how it is produced, and what it takes to produce it. Since research is often removed from the production of food, there is even less opportunity for the average person to appreciate and understand the role of research in food production. This is unfortunate because food is a necessity to sustain life.

This is in sharp contrast to human health research where the general population has an almost instant recognition and appreciation of research. If someone does not have the particular disease under study, they probably know someone who has or had the disease. Ergo, there is almost instant recognition and appreciation of much of human health research. This is one of the reasons why, in recent years, support for human health research has received far greater federal support than has agricultural research. This is evidenced by the commitment of the federal government for support of research. Federal support for research by Health and Human Services’ National Institutes of Health generally exceed $40 billion per year whereas the US Department of Agriculture provides only around $3 billion per year.

Production of food is not in the purview of agricultural research—that is the responsibility of the farmers and ranchers of the world. A reasonable argument could be made that, in the future, biochemists, engineers, and food technologists will be involved in food production as the development of manufactured food evolves, such as plant-based meat substitutes. Agricultural research generates and contributes the information, knowledge, and technology that establishes potential for the success of farmers and ranchers. This relationship is amply validated by the growth of the human population since the initiation of formal agricultural research.

Population Issues

Demographers estimate the planet's population at one to five million during humans’ existence as hunters and gatherers. As agriculture evolved, populations grew slowly and gradually reached about three hundred million by AD 1. The population grew to about one billion by 1804 and four billion by 1974 (Human Population and Dynamics 2007).

The world population today is almost eight billion. It is significant that in the history of the world, the population of the human species grew to only about 1.4 billion by the mid-nineteenth century. However, in only the past 178 years—after the beginning of formal agricultural research—the world added more than six billion people. It is apparent that a number of factors account for the increase in population. Progress in health care, sanitation, and general living conditions are highly significant. However, the tremendous increase in the availability of relatively low-cost food was the key. The enhanced food production was made possible by new innovations brought about by research in agricultural production and other related fields of science.

These relationships point to the simple fact that agricultural research benefits all of humanity. Consequently, it is important that we have a better understanding of this process and how to enhance its success.

The average person understands and appreciates medical research because it often provides a direct benefit to the individual. This is especially true when one has a particular disease or ailment benefitting from current research efforts. Since this book is being written during the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, our huge investment in human health research, for whatever reason, seems to have been a wise investment.

Defense-related research is easily understood as keeping us safe. Of course, each country in the world makes this same statement about the need for a department of defense and a strong military. Over the centuries, these same strong defenses (militaries) have been responsible for killing millions of our species.

Space research captures our excitement with the thrill of discovering new frontiers. High-energy particle physics research helps us better understand the components of the universe and how it works. Numerous other areas of research in transportation, communications, and environmental science contribute to a better quality of life for all of us.

On the other hand, much of agricultural research is far removed from the public mind as it pertains to agricultural productivity. And, quite frankly, much of agricultural research is not very exciting. For example, simple studies that show the benefits of the precise placement of fertilizer and how it can influence productivity of corn by one bushel per acre is certainly important but hardly worth a news release. Identification and control of a particular weed or insect may be important to the farmer but hardly justifies stopping the presses.

There are, however, some developments in agricultural research that are truly exciting, such as the eradicating the boll weevil in cotton, developing a red meat industry using reindeer, mass producing blood anticoagulants and penicillin, creating wrinkle-free cotton fabric, and eradicating the screwworm fly (Buchanan 2016).

Although adequate food is absolutely necessary for each of us to survive, the world has evolved in such a manner that, in some countries, the importance of food is not highly valued. In most of the developed world, there is an abundance of food. Many countries have a surplus of certain commodities. But there are some places in the world where there is not adequate food. To meet the challenge of food security for all in the future with so many unknowns will require a commitment by each country to invest and support a robust agricultural research enterprise.

Emergence of Agricultural Research

The emergence of formal agricultural research in the US closely followed developments in Europe, especially the start of the Rothamsted Experimental Station (Rothamsted Experimental Station 1977). In fact, a number of states initiated agricultural research beginning with the Connecticut Experiment Station in 1875. Later that same year, California initiated an experiment station. Over the next few years, fourteen states initiated some form of agricultural research.

As so often happens in our form of government, an idea embraced by so many states provided the basis for national attention. Culmination of this effort was passage of the Hatch Act of 1887 that provided for the establishment of a state agricultural experiment station in connection with the colleges established under the provision of the 1862 land-grant legislation. These actions and developments are well documented in a number of the publications (Edmond 1978; Kerr 1987; True 1937).

Because the states had taken such a leading role in the Hatch legislation, it is not surprising that the language of the Hatch Act gave great freedom in the conduct of agricultural research. Section 2 of the Hatch Act outlines the great flexibility each state station has in the conduct of the agricultural research:

SEC. 2. That it shall be the object and duty of said experiment stations to conduct original researches or verify experiments on the physiology of plants and animals; the diseases to which they are severally subject, with the remedies for the same; the chemical composition of useful plants at their different stages of growth; the comparative advantages of rotative cropping as pursued under the varying series of crops; the capacity of new plants or trees for acclimation; the analysis of soils and water; the chemical composition of manures, natural or artificial, with experiments designed to test the comparative effects on crops of different kinds; the adaptation and value of grasses and forage plants; the composition and digestibility of the different kinds of food for domestic animals; the scientific and economic questions involved in the production of butter and cheese; and such other researches or experiments bearing directly on the agricultural industry of the United States as may in each case be deemed advisable, having due regard to the varying conditions and needs of the respective States and Territories (Hatch Act 1887).

As land-grant institutions evolved, the agricultural experiment stations associated with them embraced a broad-based research portfolio. As colleges of agriculture incorporated new areas of instruction, invariably there were opportunities for new areas of research. Also, the nature of the colleges of agriculture impacted the agricultural research programs. For example, colleges of agriculture that include the life sciences often have a greater commitment to research in the basic sciences.

In reviewing the research accomplishments by the various experiment stations, one is struck by the exceedingly great diversity of research undertaken by agriculture scientists. Some of the first questions one could ask are What constitutes an accomplishment? Just who benefits? And how do they benefit?

Beneficiaries of Agricultural Research

While farmers and ranchers are certainly one of the primary beneficiaries of agricultural research, the increases in quantity and yield of various commodities brought about by research contribute to our quest for food security. Research that provides a means of increasing quantity or yield will provide a benefit to the farmer; however, the true beneficiaries are those who are assured adequate food. The farmer is only one of many groups who benefit from agricultural research. Each of us benefits from the wide array of food from agricultural nutrition research. Of course, research that embraces medical breakthroughs, such as the first blood thinner or a cancer treatment, has contributed to a longer life for many of us. All athletic events played on turf benefit from the research in turf science. Everyone who enjoys the outdoors and wildlife benefits from this area of research. Research that addresses conservation and fosters the protection of wildlife contributes to this benefit.

Because the average US consumer is so far removed from the farmer, it is often difficult to visualize how an increase of 1% in yield (kilograms per hectare or pounds per acre) in a crop can make a difference in the lives of humans. However, any increase in the efficiency of producing a crop is passed along the chain to the ultimate user. Consequently, the consumer ultimately benefits, as does everyone in the value chain. Incremental increases in yield can be realized by increasing genetic potential of new improved crop varieties, or they can result from incorporation of factors that protect genetic potential, such as disease resistance, insect resistance, drought tolerance, and tolerance to temperature stress; and these are typical goals for crop improvement scientists. Significant advancements in agricultural research have also been made that benefit processors. None perhaps stands out more than the simultaneous development of the processing tomato and the invention of the mechanical harvester by the University of California in response to labor cost and shortages in the 1960s. These developments addressed social issues simultaneously with concerns and challenges of both the farmer and processor. These same challenges are present today, especially for horticultural crops that require manual labor for harvest.

There are many areas of agricultural research that provide results that are quite apparent to everyone. For example, this could be a new variety of fruit that is tastier, sweeter, or crispier or that possesses some other desirable trait—e.g., the exceptional sweetness of the Florida Staysweet corn; the winter hardiness of the Frontenac wine grape; the Heritage cultivar of the red raspberry that serves as the foundation of the modern raspberry industry; or the wide variety of shapes, colors, and flavors of peppers. These are easily discernable accomplishments and show the benefits of research.

Another area where research success is easily recognizable is in nutrition research. From the food pyramid to the food plate, agricultural research has provided a better understanding of the relationship of food to human health. Research on the chronic skeletal defect tibial dyschondroplasia in broiler chickens might not sound like an important topic for the layperson; however, solving this problem contributed to the phenomenal success of the poultry industry enabling chickens to be one of the most affordable meats. There are many areas of agricultural research that the public seldom recognizes, such as developing cultivars of fruit and vegetables that better withstand harvesting, processing, and shipping while maintaining acceptable levels of desirable quality.

Research that focuses on environmental issues can have a positive effect; however, the question remains: How does such research truly benefit the individual? Some agricultural research addresses factors that enable the production of a particular crop. In such instances, there could be a particular limiting factor that prevents a crop from being produced in a given area.

For example, there was an effort to develop oilseed rape (canola) as a winter crop in the southern US. Spring types of canola, not winter types, can be grown in the South due to mild winters. Spring types did just fine in Georgia with the best yields in the US, but, during a critical period, the crops failed due to lack of care (the need for fertilization and for insect and disease sprays). A canola breeder for Calgene (a genetic engineering company) in late ’90s tried to establish varieties and had great success working with the University of Georgia. (Calgene had a station in Leesburg, Georgia, run by Curtis Hill.) Existing varieties did not have sufficient cold hardiness to be easily established in the southern US in late fall and early winter. This was a serious handicap in establishing oilseed rape as a major crop in the US South. Later research in developing more cold-hearty varieties contributed to enhanced potential for canola as a southern winter crop. Unfortunately, due to a number of other factors, oilseed rape has not become a major southern crop. With a favorable environment, proven management system, and adapted cultivars, Georgia appears to be cost competitive with other major canola-producing areas of the world. However, Georgia farmers see little opportunity to produce this potentially profitable crop without a stable and competitively priced local market. The lack of consistent and reliable local markets willing to pay farmers a fair price for their crop has been the most serious limitation to successful commercialization of canola in the Southeast during the past two decades. There remain several serious challenges to making canola an important crop for Georgia:

loss of infrastructure to support grain production,

seed supplies of adapted cultivars,

herbicide registrations necessary to utilize new herbicide-resistant systems for weed control, herbicide carryover, and

rotational issues.¹

The well-being of the earth's population is closely tied to the success of agriculture. The success of agriculture is closely tied to agricultural research (Buchanan 2016). Hence, it is apparent that agricultural research has contributed to a greater population of the planet. A majority of the world's population enjoys a remarkably high degree of nutritional security. Unfortunately, there are still significant numbers of people who do not enjoy an acceptable level of nutritional security. I readily acknowledge that security can be impacted by distribution problems, political conflicts, and wars.

Energy Challenge

Equal to the food challenge is the need for energy to sustain our civilization in the future. The fossil energy sources, coal, petroleum, and natural gas have provided the energy necessary to support our civilization for the past two centuries. During this period, the world's population grew from 1.2 billion to almost 8 billion, and it is expected to reach over 9 billion well before mid-century. Since fossil energy is finite, and because its use forms the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide, it will not be the energy source to fuel our civilization in the distant future. While hydraulic fracturing (fracking) is providing a boost in current availability of some sources of fossil energy, it only means these sources are extracted more efficiently and rapidly. The obvious conclusion is that these sources will be exhausted more quickly. A day of reckoning is at hand.

Fortunately, the sun provides an inexhaustible source of energy—at least for the next three to four billion years. Developments in recent years illustrate a path to energy security and sustainability. While the US has initiated a number of energy security starts, it has not made a unified commitment or developed a strategic plan to address this issue. Most efforts to date have been political plans—not based on sound science or true reality. While the sun is an inexhaustible source of energy, developing means and processes of capturing and converting that energy into a usable or storable form presents a real challenge. There are two basic means of addressing this challenge. First, photovoltaic panels or cells are getting better by the day. The second means of capturing the sun's energy is green plant photosynthesis. The resulting biomass then can be converted by various means into a usable form of energy.

In general, governments have not seriously addressed the future of food and nutritional security; however, it has been the focus of some organizations and individuals. For example, the World Food Prize is awarded each year to individuals who have made exceptional contributions to a more secure food future. Research scientists such as Norman Borlaug, Gurdev Khush, Henry Beachell, Sylvan Wittwer, and Glenn Burton have devoted their lives to developing sustainable food production systems.

The steps taken and the role of research in achieving a reasonable level of food security are well documented. Indeed, this book will provide many examples that illustrate how this success is being achieved. Unfortunately, the steps required to achieve energy security and sustainability have not, as of yet, been identified and/or addressed. However, adequate work has been done to give reasonable assurance that nutritional security can be achieved successfully provided there is a commitment of resources for a robust agricultural research effort.

Recognizing this simple fact puts agricultural research squarely in the driver's seat for future energy and food security. Unfortunately, this is a concept that has not been adequately recognized by our political classes. Both food security and energy security are awesome challenges that must be addressed to assure the future well-being of our civilization.

Role of the Sun in Food and Energy Security

There have been a couple of efforts by the US to achieve energy security by subsidizing noncompetitive technology. This is hardly a sound approach. In the most recent attempt to develop an energy plan, the US legislature enacted legislation that required a portion of ethanol for blending in gasoline be derived from cellulosic biomass. Of course, such competitive technology had not been developed at that time, and a competitive process has yet to be developed. The critical linkage of food and energy security is well-defined (Songstad et al. 2014).

Both energy and food are dependent on the sun's energy. Agriculture provides a means of harvesting (i.e., capturing) the sun's energy and allowing it to be converted into a useful product such as food or some other form of energy. Agriculture is a key component of this process, and agricultural research is the critical component that provides the path to make this a reality. It has been quite frustrating that the US Congress has not recognized that agriculture is the key to our future energy security. Of course, this will occur only if there is a genuine recognition and commitment for support of agricultural research which has not yet materialized. In a country such as the US, expenditures of public money should bring about a public benefit either for society or individuals.

The return on investment in agricultural research is well documented in the scientific literature. Funding for agricultural research can be expected to return a 40%–50% annual rate of return depending on specific areas of investigation.

Just as there is a range of rates of return on investment in agricultural research for society, there is a wide variation in the impact of research on individuals. Indeed, much of the impact of agricultural research on individuals is not readily obvious. For example, the sweetness of a new cultivar of watermelon or a new cultivar of blackberry without thorns would be readily apparent to the individual consumer. On the other hand, an increase in disease resistance that reduces the need for applications of fungicides is more elusive. Much of the results of agricultural research leads to benefits that, to the layperson, happen in the background.

Areas of Agricultural Research

The above facts immediately call into question, What should be the priorities in agricultural research? Addressing this very issue is but one of the primary challenges for administrators of agricultural research programs. The typical agricultural research administrator has many sources of pressure. First is the knowledge of the situation, often articulated by commodity, trade, or special interest groups. Such groups can be challenging or even demanding. Usually, they are highly charged and not shy about expressing their expectations. Most of the time, such interest groups have a good grasp of the problem and have identified ideas for research to solve the problem. Unfortunately, on occasion, an individual or group demands research that is not bound by good science. National organizations such as the American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America, and National Association of Plant Breeders pose a more realistic and balanced view.

While I represent only one area of science found in the typical agricultural experiment station in the nation's land-grant and other agriculture-related universities, I feel my experience as an administrator of agricultural programs has enabled me to have a realistic perspective and appreciation of most areas of agricultural research. These various experiences have led me to several conclusions. First, every agricultural commodity or enterprise has multiple needs that can possibly be met through research. Most problems identified by commodity, trade, and various support groups have merit, although some are more critical than others to enable successful production of that commodity. Another important fact is that problems that prevent loss or protect the commodity from pests or environmental stresses have a higher priority for some clientele than does futuristic research that might lead to greater productivity in the future. This breaks down into defensive research and offensive research. The successful research administrator must focus and distribute limited research funds to best benefit US farmers and consumers across crops, both major and seemingly minor, that impact nutritional security or might do so in the future. Finally, to respond to the question of what the most critical areas of research focus are to ensure the success of agriculture, there is not an easy answer. In fact, this is one of the most important issues that research administrators must consider in carrying out their responsibility of leading a research program.

As pointed out earlier, each state experiment station is provided the opportunity to set its own research agenda. This results in research programs that vary from state to state. In general, this system has fostered a focus on solving specific problems affecting that state's agricultural portfolio. However, many forward-looking stations have invested considerable resources in more fundamental or basic research.

Perusing structures of many land-grant university colleges of agriculture is highly interesting. While there is a range of academic departments, there is also considerable similarity. For example, most institutions have agronomy, soils, horticulture, economics, entomology, plant pathology, and animal science departments. Of course, some of these units are described by different names. For example, agronomy may be called plant sciences or crops. Also, often there are combinations—e.g., agronomy and horticulture make up the plant sciences department.

There are a host of other academic departments—such as engineering, food science, nematology, genetics, biochemistry—that fill a specific need. Some areas are fundamental to the total agricultural research spectrum. The first of these is statistics. This area of agricultural investigation will be more fully discussed in chapter 3.

Pivotal Areas of Agricultural Research

In addition to the broad areas of agricultural research, each of the more focused areas has merit and contributes to the success of the field as a whole. I have identified two of these areas as pivotal for agricultural research.

My reason for identifying pivotal areas of agricultural research is to help focus and prioritize future research. Records clearly show past research contributions to the success of agriculture. To cite one example, in the mid-1940s the average yield of the United States’ most important feed grain, corn, was just over 30 bushels per acre. Through continuous research on the development of hybrid corn and improved soil and crop management, average corn yields gradually increased fivefold to 150 bushels per acre by 2008. As a result of these dramatic changes, the market price per bushel in 2010 dollars fell from a peak of $16 around 1948 to about three dollars in 2008. These changes in efficiency allowed the average family spending for food to decrease from over 20% of their income in 1946 to less than 10% in 2008. Spending less for food allowed families to improve other aspects of their lives.

While many areas of agricultural research (such as pathology, entomology, and weed science) protect against crop losses by diseases, insects, and weeds, genetics/breeding and soil chemistry/soil science seek inherently to further increase productivity. Because of the pivotal nature of these areas of agricultural research, the research establishment should prioritize supporting and nurturing these areas to further enhance agricultural productivity.

In addition, agricultural production puts pressure on our natural resources. We should focus more effort on protecting our natural resources (soil, water, and air) while continuing to increase productivity on the vast agricultural land in the US. Sustainably providing food for expanding US and world populations, while protecting the quality of our soil, water, and air is essential for present and future generations.

For the future success of agriculture, it is very important that researchers and administrators recognize the importance and role of the pivotal areas of agricultural research and their contribution to the success of agriculture and the nation.

Soil Chemistry / Soil Science

The first of these areas is soil chemistry / soil science. The great majority of all food is produced in that layer of topsoil that covers much of our planet. Consequently, our very survival is dependent on that layer of soil—both for our crops as well as support for our food animals.

Soil chemistry is the fundamental component of soil science. However, it is difficult to consider the role of soil chemistry without seriously considering all aspects of soil science. In recent years, there has evolved a renewed interest in soils, particularly with regard to their improvement and conservation.

Food security is almost totally dependent on the soil. Even use of hydroponics in production of some specialty crops depends on many aspects of understanding nutrients—whether in soil or in a water medium. About the only areas of food production that are not related to some aspect of soil are mariculture and aquaculture. Even aquaculture is greatly influenced by some aspects of nutrient management.

Genetics/Breeding

The second pivotal area includes genetics, along with breeding and cultivar / genetic line development. This area of research offers the clearest path to improving agriculture through research. First, there is the potential of improving yield and/or quality of the product. Breeding and cultivar development offer a potential avenue to solving some problems more effectively. For example, some plant diseases and insect problems can be addressed with the use of fungicides or insecticides. However, oftentimes the problem can be solved by breeding resistance into desirable crop cultivars.

The genetic/breeding research area offers the greatest opportunity for offensive agricultural research. This is in contrast to many areas that are clearly defensive in nature. This includes such areas of research as plant pathology, entomology, and weed science, which are designed to protect productivity. While this area has been highly important in the past, research developments in some areas of biotechnology are convincing us that we are about to enter a new paradigm in food production that will contribute to greater food security. Recent developments in the area of clustered regularly interspaced short palindrome repeats (CRISPR) technology for genome editing offer exceedingly great potential for improving many crop species. Obviously, such technology will contribute to future success of agriculture and help ensure food security for all.

I do not wish to imply that the pivotal areas of agricultural research are the most important areas of investigations, although an argument could perhaps be made to that effect. They are areas around which a successful agricultural research effort could be developed. They are certainly fundamental to the overall success of agriculture.

While the role of agricultural research is tied closely to food security, there are other broad accomplishments of agricultural research. Research that identifies specific attributes of food that address a specific health issue is important. As the linking of nutrition and health becomes better defined, there is greater likelihood of even more contributions of agricultural research to our well-being beyond just nourishment.

1 From personal communication Paul Raymer, professor, Crop and Soil Sciences, UGA; Timothy Grey, professor, Crop and Soil Sciences, UGA; David Buntin, professor, Entomology, UGA.

CHAPTER 3

Development and Impact of Statistics on Agricultural Research and Related Areas of Science

Regression analysis is the hydrogen bomb of the statistical arsenal.

—Charles Wheelan, Naked Statistics: Stripping the Dread from the Data

T

HE FIELD OF STATISTICS HAS HAD AN UNQUESTIONED POSITIVE and important impact on agricultural research. Statistics has enabled investigators to have a remarkable degree of confidence in their research findings. Before the development of statistics in agriculture, about the only way to discern differences in treatments was This was better than that. Or if the same results happened ten times in a row, there was a good possibility that you could be assured that they would happen the same way the eleventh time. It is quite apparent that this is intellectually unsatisfactory and unsatisfying for a scientist.

The discipline of agricultural statistics has greatly contributed to the success of agricultural research and ultimately the success of agriculture. While the contributions to agriculture are unquestioned, agricultural statistics has had a marked impact on many other areas of science as well. First, statistics as a discipline had its genesis in mathematics. Researchers in a number of disciplines—including psychology, economics, education, business, and many other fields with some level of interest and expertise in mathematics—engaged in early development of the discipline. Mathematical statistics emerged as a branch of mathematics at the turn of the twentieth century.

The American Statistical Association (ASA) was founded in 1839 in Boston, Massachusetts. Much of the early effort involving statistics was in the processing of census information and data collection benefitting Americans’ health. Much of this early work was simply accumulating data. There are reports of instruction in statistics as early as 1880 by Columbia College. The ASA began publishing the Journal of the American Statistical Association in 1888. The Department of Applied Statistics was founded by Karl Pearson in 1911 in University College London. Individuals including Henry Rietz, George Snedecor, Harry Carver, and Harold Hotelling were some of the early pioneers in this emerging field of science. For the most part, individuals engaged in these efforts worked in isolation. The importance of this area of science and the lack of a unified effort made this an area ready for formalization, i.e., achieving departmental status in the academic environment.

Early development of statistics in the US really began with George Snedecor joining the Department of Mathematics at Iowa State University in 1913. He quickly initiated courses with statistical content. Not surprisingly, the courses were of great interest to those engaged in some area of agricultural investigations. The importance of careful experimental design and application of statistical analysis were emphasized in his courses.

It is remarkable that a former vice president of the United States played a key role in the development and evolution of agricultural statistics. That vice president was Henry A. Wallace, editor of Wallaces’ Farmer, Secretary of Agriculture, and founder of Pioneer Hi-Bred Corn Company (later Pioneer Hi-Bred International). This company is now a part of Corteva Agriscience. Wallace was probably the most knowledgeable and actively involved US president or vice president about agriculture in the history of this country.

Institutionalization of Statistics

The formalization of statistics began with the formation of the Mathematical Statistical Service by Iowa State University in 1927. George Snedecor and A. E. Brandt served as heads of the unit. In 1933, the university formed the Statistical Laboratory under the office of the university president with Snedecor as the first director. Recognizing the importance of statistical methods for support of agricultural research, the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station formed a statistical section, later named the Department of Statistics. The Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station continues to support the Department of Statistics to this day. In 1947, the Department of Statistics was organized as a stand-alone department in the Division of Science, now the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences at Iowa State University.

Another important step in the development of statistics in the US was the formation of the Department of Statistics at North Carolina State University. This department was founded by Gertrude Cox in 1941. She was one of the first recipients of the master of science degree in statistics presented by Iowa State University. This department has grown into one of the elite departments of statistics with strengths in both graduate and undergraduate education programs and research.

It is highly noteworthy that, while the genesis of statistics was in mathematics, agriculture was among the first areas of science to recognize the power of statistics and to embrace it as a tool in scientific investigations. This is not surprising in view of the fact that the great statistician Ronald Fisher² spent much of his career at the Rothamsted Experimental Station in England. While at the station, he analyzed the extensive data sets taken from crop experiments that had accumulated since the beginning of the station in 1842 (1843).³ Among the many noteworthy contributions to the field of statistics was the development of the analysis of variance (ANOVA). He also was a major contributor toward establishing the field of population genetics and quantitative genetics. During his career, he made visits to both Iowa State University and North Carolina State University.

In my opinion, the simple fact that Fisher was both exceedingly brilliant as a mathematician and highly knowledgeable about agriculture contributed to the emergence of statistics as an important research tool for agriculture as well as other areas of science.

Two of the most highly impacted areas of agricultural research by statistics are genetics and plant breeding. First, scientists in these areas are often dealing with exceedingly large data sets with considerable variability. Also, often they are trying to discern minute differences. Without statistics, such efforts would be impossible.

Statistics helped to separate genetic effects from environmental effects or nongenetic effects. It helped identify traits that could be improved permanently in a breeding program and provide an estimate on the amount of success possible with various traits. Statistics made it possible to compare potentially new cultivars with existing cultivars to determine if genetic progress was being made.

Statistics helped to make testing germplasm efficient. For example, a 9 × 9 lattice square design with five replications gave us the same accuracy in forage testing as a randomized complete block design with ten replications. Therefore, one could get the same accuracy in half the land area with a 9 × 9 lattice. In inheritance studies, scientists could compare an array of experimental data to numerous potential genetic ratios at the push of a button.

Agricultural research through the agricultural experiment stations made an important contribution to the field of statistics. Particularly, as technology evolved, statistics was early and readily accepted. In my early days as a graduate student, the old Monroe calculator was a great tool. But such tools often accounted for great frustration. I am sure most graduate students, as well as many agricultural scientists, have experienced making an error while calculating the sum of squares for an experiment. Of course, as soon as one mistake was made you had to start over. Then came the programmable calculator. You could put your data in, and—Presto!—you had a sum of squares without error and without repeating.

The emergence of the analog computer changed everything. Obviously, the power of the computer, even the early models, enabled statistics to become an even more powerful tool since agriculture, at least in the US, was so heavily involved in the emerging field of statistics. Agricultural experiment stations often became a major player and partner in contributing to the universities’ purchase of a computer. In the early days, the computer of choice was often the IBM 650. At some institutions, experiment stations still contribute to the universities’ computer centers. It is apparent that statistics has had a substantial impact on genetics, leading to a better understanding of Mendelian inheritance as well as an appreciation for more fundamental aspects of quantitative genetics.

As statistics evolved, the importance of experimental design became more apparent. For the beginning graduate students, understanding how best to design experiments that yield data that can be analyzed to answer specific questions is a challenge. Having a sound understanding of experimental design, randomization, and statistical procedures is a recipe for research success. The power of statistics really began by requiring an emphasis on design of experiments so that data would fit an appropriate model for analysis. This necessitates the researcher developing a carefully thought-out plan before initiating a research project.

In my planning for a research career over a half century ago, I took a number of courses in statistics involving experimental design and methods of analysis. I felt I had a reasonable appreciation and understanding of how to conduct my experiments. However, I soon learned that it is always prudent to schedule a visit with the station statistician for review of plans and approaches before initiating an experiment, particularly a complicated or long-term one.

Science, for the most part, is reducing the effects of some treatment to a number. While the scientist is knowledgeable of the treatments, the role of the statistician is only with the numbers. Therefore, each party must be involved in planning the research. For successful interpretation of the results of an experiment, it is not necessary for the statistician to be knowledgeable of the science aspects of research. That is the role and purview as well as responsibility of the investigator.

Planning requires both knowledge of the nature of the experiment to address the research in question and method of statistical analysis—as well as just plain common sense! I vividly recall my first year in graduate school. After helping me outline some experiments for my thesis research, my major professor directed me to meet with the station statistician to review my proposal for research. The plan called for a one-square-foot sample from each four-hundred-square-foot plot. Later in the season, I began sampling and encountered a problem in throwing the one-square-foot ring over my shoulder. One such throw landed in the edge of the plot, where small erosion had taken out the plants leaving the soil bare. It was a serious problem for a beginning graduate student. I went to see my major professor, and I’ll never forget his first comment.

He said, Just what does your common sense tell you to do? Obviously, you should throw the hoop again!

Sampling from an obviously nonrepresentative area of the plot was foolish. That was a lesson I have never forgotten. It is important that in employing statistics, one should not lose sight of one's common sense. Drawing conclusions from the results of an experiment and knowing the specific effects of individual treatment with some level of confidence are highly important. It is also important to learn of the nature of interactions of treatments. In many areas of agricultural investigation, it is virtually impossible to learn of this aspect of experiments without the aid of statistical analysis.

Implementation of statistical analysis certainly gives confidence to the investigator, and, even more important, it provides strong evidence to other scientists interested in the research. It also gives assurance to the soundness and validity of the research treatment effects. The scientist is responsible for the conclusion and interpretation of the results of the experiment. The statistical analysis and consulting statistician can provide assistance to the investigator in reaching conclusions and interpreting the results of the investigation. It is apparent that the ideal situation is where the statistician and investigator work together to interpret the results of an experiment.

Statistics and statisticians are only a tool for the investigator, although a very powerful tool.

2 Wikipedia, s.v. Ronald Fisher, last edited August 4, 2021, 3:22, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Fisher.

3 Some sources place the beginning of Rothamsted in 1843, not 1842.

CHAPTER 4

Accomplishments in Agricultural Research

Before an experiment can be performed, it must be planned—the question to nature must be formulated before being posed. Before the result of