Roman Emperors: A Guide to the Men Who Ruled the Empire

By Mario Bartolini

Roman Emperors is a concise chronological guide to the emperors who ruled the Roman Empire. It covers the period from the establishment of the Empire by Augustus in 27 BCE to the abdication of Romulus Augustus in 476 CE, an event that marks the official end of the existence of the Roman Empire as a political entity in Western Europe. After a useful introduction to the late Republic and its transformation into the Empire, each of the eighty-five emperors customarily recognized as legitimate are presented in the order in which they reigned. This includes both Eastern and Western emperors for those periods where the empire was divided, and each one is illustrated. A useful glossary of technical terms is also provided.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Pen and Sword
• Release date: Jan 5, 2023
• ISBN: 9781399063685

Mario Bartolini

Mario Bartolini is a retired political analyst and officer in the Canadian army reserve, with a long-held interest in Roman military history. He has a bachelor’s and a master’s degree in political history from the Université de Sherbrooke, Canada, and a second master’s degree in war studies, obtained at the Royal Military College of Canada. He lives in Ottawa.

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Emperors of the Principate (27 BCE-285 CE)

Augustus Caius Julius Caesar Octavius

Rome, Italy 63

BCE

– Nola, Italy 14

CE

Reign: 27

BCE

-14

CE

Originating from a family of the equestrian order, Octavian was admitted to high nobility by alliance. Wishing to make his nephew Octavian a future politician, Julius Caesar worked diligently in favour of his career development and provided him with an excellent education. In 45

BCE

, Caesar adopted him. When Caesar was assassinated the following year, the young Octavian, then 19 years old, began his ascent to the supreme authority. Following intrigue and armed clashes, Octavian was elected consul and with Lepidus and Mark Anthony formed a triumvirate in 43

BCE

. When this arrangement expired in 33

BCE

, Lepidus was removed from the political scene. The struggle then became inevitable between the ambitious Octavian, master of the western part of the Roman world, and Mark Anthony who, with the support of Cleopatra, the Queen of independent Egypt, governed the East. Octavian’s victory at Actium in 31

BCE

, followed by the progressive conquest of the East, pushed Mark Anthony and Cleopatra to suicide. Egypt then became a Roman province. Following these events, Octavian entered Rome as the sole master of the Roman world.

Silver Denarius of Augustus.

Not wanting the return of a monarchy, a concept linked to the memory of the Tarquinii kings that the Romans particularly despised, and remembering the fate experienced by Caesar, Octavian aspired to be ‘summoned’ by the Senate to legitimize his authority. Public opinion and the socio-political context were ripe. Tired of the civil wars which had shaken society for the past dozen years, the Romans wanted the return of stability. In 27

BCE

, the Senate granted Octavian the title of Augustus, which became an integral part of his name. The powers hitherto held by the various magistrates were now conferred upon him. The Empire was established, and Augustus, on a basis of authority which was still fragile, initiated the Julio-Claudian dynasty.

The first Roman emperor tried to reintegrate ancient values and traditions into Roman society. He restored some prestige to the Senate despite the fact that in reality its political authority remained limited. The Empire was administered by a corps of officials coming from the upper classes of society. Augustus reorganized the Empire by forming senatorial and imperial provinces, the latter being under the direct authority of the emperor. The civil servant hierarchy quickly adapted to the new context, which facilitated the management of Roman lands. The army was also reorganized: The number of legions was set at 25, and military service increased from sixteen to twenty years. The upper ranks were filled by senators and knights, but soldiers of the lower classes had the opportunity to climb to the respectable rank of centurion. In order to support the consolidation of his authority, Augustus established the Praetorian Guard, an elite armed body charged with protecting the emperor.

Augustus completed the pacification of Spain and pushed the border of the Empire to the Danube River. The relatively moderate foreign policy of Augustus became prudent following the treachery of Teutoburg in year 9. It is during this large-scale ambush that Varus perished, faithful lieutenant of the emperor, and three legions in the hands of a coalition of Germanic tribes. This military catastrophe forever marked the collective Roman spirit and crystallized apprehensions toward the Germanic tribes for the rest of Antiquity.

Eager to leave the Empire in the hands of a competent man after his death, Augustus experimented with different people and formulas. His first hopes rested on an old friend, Agrippa, who married Julia, the emperor’s own daughter. But Agrippa died in 12

BCE

. Augustus then turned his attention to his two grandsons, Caius and Lucius Caesar, but they died in years 2 and 4 respectively. It is then that Augustus adopted Tiberius, son of his wife Livia from a previous marriage. By year 13, Tiberius held almost all of the levers of power, given the advanced age of Augustus. Tiberius succeeded him a year later, when Augustus died at the age of 77.

The accomplishments of Augustus were remarkable. The Empire acquired a legitimate form and was very well organized. Even if the authority of the Empire ultimately rested on the absolute exercise of military command, which could be a weakness in difficult circumstances, the presence of the Senate nevertheless ensured a certain balance in the division of powers. Thanks to the achievements of Augustus, his principate corresponded to one of the most brilliant periods in Roman history, hence the hailed expression ‘Century of Augustus’.

Tiberius Tiberius Julius Caesar

Rome, Italy 42

BCE

– Misenum (Miseno), Italy 37

Reign: 14–37

Tiberius was the son of Livia who married Augustus in a second marriage. In search of a successor, Augustus adopted Tiberius in year 4. Very quickly, Tiberius demonstrated his qualities by fighting in Germania and Illyria. When Agrippa died in year 12, Tiberius was persuaded by the emperor to marry the widow, Julia, the daughter of Augustus. Tiberius was associated with the Empire the following year. Becoming emperor upon the death of Augustus, Tiberius governed by sharing the power with the Senate. According to the wishes of the late emperor, Tiberius adopted Germanicus, Augustus’s nephew, with the aim of making him his eventual successor despite the fact that he himself already had a son named Drusus. Tiberius was competent, conscientious and exercised rigorous financial administration. However, in the face of revolts within the army, he gradually adopted an authoritarian and suspicious behaviour.

Silver Denarius of Tiberius.

In year 16, Germanicus carried out a punitive expedition in Germania against Arminius, thus avenging the treachery of Teutoburg. He therefore pushed back the frontiers of the Empire on the Rhine and brought back to Rome the standards of the three legions annihilated seven years earlier. He also created two new provinces in the East (Cappadocia and Commagene), while Drusus carried out expeditions against the king of Bohemia. Shortly after these victories, Germanicus died suddenly in Egypt.

In 27, having become ill, Tiberius withdrew to the island of Capri, leaving the management of State affairs to the Praetorian prefect Sejanus, who quickly began to covet power. Sejanus even poisoned Drusus, the son of Tiberius, in order to prepare his usurpation. Realizing Sejanus’s ambitious aims, Tiberius retook the reins of power and had him executed in 31. Because of Tiberius’s behaviour, who was embittered by these events, the last six years of his principate were presented by certain historians as a difficult period. His constant, even sickly concern to avoid conspiracies and to keep control of the finances of the Empire pushed him to accuse numerous dignitaries, including his relatives, whom he considered too greedy or ambitious.

As a general rule, Tiberius’s policy aligned with those of Augustus despite a sometimes tumultuous relationship with the Senate. A stern and suspicious man to his entourage, Tiberius remained a very competent man at the head of the Empire to which he continued to show sincere integrity until his death in 37. At the age of 78, Tiberius died of natural causes despite rumours of murder.

Caligula Caius Caesar Augustus Germanicus

Antium (Anzio), Italy 12 – Rome, Italy 41

Reign: 37–41

Son of Germanicus adopted by Tiberius, Caius was a young man with fragile physical and mental health and who was unknown until then. When still a child, Caius accompanied Germanicus on military expeditions. Often dressed as a little soldier, Caius also wore small military sandals called caligae. Lovingly, the soldiers who saw him parading on horseback with his father nicknamed him Caligula, meaning ‘little sandals’. He succeeded Tiberius on his death in 37.

Sestertius of Caligula.

The young 25-year-old emperor had neither the personal ability nor the skills to govern. Rather obsessed with carnal pleasures and oriental esotericism, he remained very far from the reality of power and the needs of the Empire. His unpredictable temper and thirst for sadism and extravagance quickly became legendary. Leading the fashion of the oriental despot surrounded by mysticism, the unbalanced young man undertook many urban projects, only to abandon them almost immediately. Governing according to his fortuitous emotions, in 39 he ordered an expedition to Germania without a precise military motive and without significant strategic consequences. The arbitrary assassinations of foreign governors and dignitaries pushed certain provinces such as Mauritania, Armenia and Judea toward instability, even open