Pillars of a Mature Worldview: An Introduction to the Principle of the Unity of Science and Religion

By Michael Merkel

Our worldview determines our perception of reality and thus shapes our attitude to life and the way we live. If our worldview adequately reflects reality, we can lead an authentic and meaningful life that we will later look back on with satisfaction. A mature worldview is much more than the accumulation of facts and experiences. Whereas in the past there was primarily a lack of scientific insight, today it is above all the immense flood of information and opinions that obscures our view of essential knowledge. It is therefore not surprising that people's views sometimes differ considerably with regard to fundamental questions of life.
The thesis of this book is that in this age it is possible for the first time to obtain objectively convincing answers to the great philosophical questions of life. However, for this we have to draw on two equal sources of knowledge, which in the last centuries were rather regarded as adversaries: science and religion. In their respective updated forms, they are the key to separating truth from error and to assembling various worldview fragments into a coherent overall picture. If science and faith pull together in a mature way, great insights and undreamt-of connections open up.
This book provides an easy-to-read, albeit quite comprehensive, introduction to the profound principle of the unity of science and religion. After examining what distinguishes modern science and true faith, it explains how both areas of knowledge are interrelated by their very nature and work constructively together. Building on this methodological foundation, essential philosophical concepts are explained in the light of current scientific and religious knowledge, which should not be missing as necessary pillars in any mature worldview.

• Language: English
• Publisher: tredition
• Release date: Aug 11, 2023
• ISBN: 9783347964099

Michael Merkel

Michael Merkel wurde 1969 in München geboren. Er ist seit 1991 verheiratet, hat zwei erwachsene, inzwischen ebenfalls verheiratete Kinder sowie zwei Enkelkinder. Sein Wohnsitz ist südlich von München im oberbayerischen Holzkirchen. Nach dem Studium der theoretischen Physik entschied er sich gegen eine Forschungskarriere und wechselte stattdessen in die Wirtschaft. Seit über 25 Jahren arbeitet er in einem großen Versicherungskonzern, aktuell als Führungskraft im zentralen Risikomanagement. Neben Familie und Beruf liebt Michael Merkel die Natur, hat eine große Vorliebe für Sport (z.B. Ultralaufen) und interessiert sich besonders für die »großen Fragen des Lebens« im Spannungsfeld von Wissenschaft und Glauben. (Michael Merkel was born in Munich in 1969. He has been married since 1991, has two grown-up children, who are now also married, and two grandchildren. He lives south of Munich in Warngau, Upper Bavaria. After studying theoretical physics, he decided against a career in research and instead switched to business. He has been working for a large insurance company for over 25 years, currently as a manager in central risk management. In addition to family and career, Michael Merkel loves nature, has a great fondness for sports (e.g. ultra running) and is particularly interested in the »big questions of life« in the area of tension between science and faith.)

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PREFACE

The world with its diverse and wonderful phenomena fascinated me from childhood and was one of the reasons why I later studied physics. Beyond my interest in the natural sciences, I have been dealing with metaphysical topics for many years and am a member of the youngest world religion, the Bahá’í Faith. When people learn that my religious faith is a significant source of knowledge for me, they usually react with reserve, irritation or even rejection. Quite a few insist on their conviction that religion has long since become superfluous due to the progress of science.

Why »modern« science and »true« religion are not opposites but are inseparably linked is a complex question that cannot be answered adequately in a few sentences. In addition, science and religion are usually viewed with very little differentiation with regard to their ability to convey knowledge. Far too often, prejudices, mere opinions and preferences determine the discussion at the expense of objective facts. This is regrettable, as it considerably hinders the individual as well as societal process of knowledge. I am deeply convinced that the serious global challenges currently threatening humanity can only be solved if science and religion work together harmoniously. Only then can we arrive at a coherent and holistic view of the world, which, as we shall see, offers not only very interesting, but above all indispensable insights for a successful and fulfilling life.

The need for the constructive interaction of science and faith, according to the Bahá’í teachings, arises from a principle known as the »unity of science and religion«. Both the comprehension and the practical implementation of this important principle presupposes that we acquire a sound understanding of the true nature of both systems of knowledge. This must also include the significant paradigm shifts that have occurred in both fields over the last 200 years, but unfortunately have not yet fully entered the public discourse.

My intensive study of the principle of the unity of science and religion soon proved to be an extremely exciting undertaking and eventually led to the desire to systematize and write down the most important insights. Roughly speaking, both knowledge domains meet at three levels in the process of knowledge acquisition:

› Methodological knowledge: How do we arrive at relevant knowledge?

› Basic knowledge: What is the world made of and how does it work?

› Practical knowledge: What should we do and which principles of action help us?

Following this systematic approach, the present book is an attempt to explain how science and religion must work together if relevant and reliable knowledge is to emerge. Building on this methodological understanding, the main part of the book is devoted to the big questions of life. A number of central themes are dealt with which, because of their importance, should not be missing from any mature and holistic worldview.

Presenting this complex subject area appropriately sometimes proved to be a major challenge. It was necessary to cover the essential aspects in sufficient breadth without becoming too long-winded or too superficial. The extent to which a sensible balance has been achieved is left to the reader's judgement. I do not want to neglect to point out that despite thorough examination of the contents presented, I am not an expert in all the areas covered. Likewise, in a book of this complexity, it cannot be ruled out that one or the other subjective interpretation might have crept in. In any case, I have endeavored to be as objective as possible both in terms of the selection of the views and doctrines available on the respective topics and in the presentation and assessment of the facts.

All in all, I hope that this book, for all its imperfections, will provide enough material for interesting food for thought and stimulate constructive discussions.

Over the years, various people have contributed directly or indirectly to this book project. The biggest contribution was made by my wife Stefanie Merkel, who actively and tirelessly supported me from the beginning. I would also like to acknowledge the support of Dagmar Königer, Sören Rekel-Bludau, Babak Farrokhzad, Miriam Merkel, David Schubert, Bidjan Sobhani, Peter Hörster, Nikolai Merkel and the Bahá’í Academic Review Board. To these and others I would like to express my heartfelt thanks!

Holzkirchen in February 2021

Michael Merkel

PREFACE TO THE FIRST ENGLISH EDITION

The feedback I have received so far from those who have read the German edition of the book in its entirety or at least in large parts has been very positive. Therefore, the desire arose to make the book accessible to an even larger audience with the help of the English translation that is now available. I hope that the topics covered will also offer English-speaking readers some food for thought that will take them a step further in their examination of the great questions of life.

Since learning lives from mutual exchange, I am very interested in feedback of any kind. You are therefore warmly invited to use [e-mail] for this purpose.

Warngau in July 2023

Michael Merkel

PROLOGUE

1 The Game of Life

People Need Orientation

Life is a game, as all games are: He who does not understand loses, and he who understands wins. JOHANN WILHELM LUDWIG GLEIM

Life is like drawing without an eraser. ECKART VON HIRSCHHAUSEN

A father is playing chess with his little daughter. Both sit opposite each other and gaze spellbound at the board with its white and black squares. Father and daughter seem very concentrated as they take turns moving their pieces. Suddenly, the daughter jumps up excitedly as she moves her knight into a promising position. This move seems to have been unexpected for the father as well. Annoyed, he mumbles something about »beginner’s mistake« and a »lost rook«. For minutes he visibly strains to look at the board, while his daughter can hardly sit still with tension. Finally, he moves his king one square to the right. Impatiently, the daughter captures the rook and thus takes her booty. The game continues. As time goes by, the daughter’s victorious expression disappears again. After a few small mistakes by the daughter, the father has won the game and breathes a sigh of relief. The daughter is also satisfied, having at least brought her supposedly overpowering father to the brink of defeat.

The quality of the individual moves can only be understood by those who are familiar with playing chess. In addition to understanding the aim of the game, this also includes knowing the rules of the game and the possible uses of all the game pieces. However, a solid basic knowledge alone does not make a good player. As we have seen from the above example, experience also plays a decisive role in a demanding game like chess. It is above all practical knowledge that enables the player to develop a promising game strategy and to select the best moves from a multitude of possible moves. Chess probably enjoys such great popularity because it offers numerous possibilities for influencing and shaping the game and is characterized by an open course of play. These characteristics make the game interesting, give it excitement and demand both thinking and creative players.

Human life resembles a game in many ways. Here, too, we have countless possibilities to shape and influence the course. However, unlike a game, which we can start all over again at any time, we only have one life at our disposal. Indeed, something is at stake in the »game of life«. If we want to be successful in this important game, we should thoroughly examine its nature and consider what this means for our way of life.

— The Game of Life

Basic Questions

Compared to a game, our life is not only much more meaningful and magnificent, but also much more multi-layered and complex. Moreover, life lacks an obvious »game manual« that offers orientation regarding the prevailing boundary conditions and design possibilities. If we want to get to the core of the game of life, we have to deal in depth with the great questions of life and in this way work out a mature worldview.

Let us now consider, analogously to the success factors of a game like chess, some fundamental questions about the art of living. As a counterpart to the game instructions these are to be answered as part of a realistic worldview. Figure 1 provides an overview of this, which is explained below.

Fig.1: Central Questions on the »Game of Life«

What is the goal and meaning of life?

Those who want to play successfully have the goal of the game firmly in mind with every move they make and consciously direct their moves towards it. But what is the goal and the meaning of our life? Is there an overriding meaning that is equally valid for all people, or are we called upon to define our life’s purpose and meaning ourselves? It is obvious that the goal and the meaning of life are not given like a game manual, but have to be consciously recognized and chosen. But where can we find valuable clues as to what we can base these choices on?

The exploration of the purpose of our existence is closely linked to the question of whether the »game of life« ends with physical death or whether it continues in some way afterwards. This question is of fundamental importance because depending on the answer, we will view and shape our lives under a completely different premise. Every person who wants to live a self-determined life will sooner or later stumble upon this and similar questions. As long as the goal and meaning of our lives are not sufficiently defined, we lack orientation and direction. Our »life moves« are then in a sense arbitrary.

In a game, the way other players play also has an influence on one’s own game strategy and tactics. It forces one to make adjustments despite one’s own plans and sometimes even to fundamentally rethink. In real life it is no different: Because we are integrated into the reality of a society, our personal room for maneuver depends very much on the nature of our social environment and its influence on us. The high significance of society for its constituent members requires us to reflect on whether and to what extent there may be an overarching, collective meaning and mission inherent in society itself. Consequently, it is not only the purpose of the human being, but also that of humanity that needs to be examined more closely. For this it is helpful to deal more closely with the properties of the world and in particular with the nature of human beings.

What is the world made of?

In the game of life, the world with its manifold phenomena forms the »playing field« on which we operate. The more thoroughly science explores our universe, the more clearly it becomes apparent how extraordinarily aesthetic, but also complex, our world is. Scientists have long since become accustomed to the fact that the explanation of investigated phenomena always raises new questions, the answers to which led to a constantly deepening understanding of the world. While the scientific view of the world was still largely mechanistic and materialistic at the beginning of the 20th century, research into various quantum phenomena in particular has forced a radical rethink. Today, modern science paints a picture of a world that is far more than its material surface would have us believe.

If the essence of the world is indeed not purely material, what about the human being who is part of this world? According to this knowledge, would it not be a must for modern people to consider that human beings could also possess a dimension that goes beyond matter? Should we indeed possess an immaterial identity independent of the body, usually called soul, then it would only be logical that we also deal with the nature of this special dimension. We would have to look at our lives from a much broader perspective and rethink what consequences this would have for our understanding of the human nature. Our conception of the human being would then possibly have to be supplemented by relevant attributes and aspects.

The question of the existence of a human soul immediately brings up the question of the existence of God. Those who strive for a mature and complete worldview cannot avoid examining which arguments speak for and which against such a hypothesis. For similar to the assumption of a soul, the assumption of a God also changes our worldview considerably and inevitably raises further questions, such as: Can God be recognized? Can statements be made about his attributes and characteristics of the relationship between Creator and creature be found? Does God have a purpose for the human being? And, to return to the game analogy: Could this source possibly yield central clues in the sense of a »game manual« for our lives?

What are the laws that govern the universe?

Our universe is characterized by numerous laws that result from the relationships between its various elements. We experience a multitude of these rules every day. As part of the physical creation, human beings are inevitably subject to the laws of nature that prevail there. We have to eat and drink regularly, protect ourselves from wind and weather, and observe other physical conditions if we want to survive. We also do not become younger in the course of time but are subject to a natural and inevitable ageing process that ultimately ends with physical death.

Interesting and at the same time enormously important is the question of whether law-like relationships also exist outside of physical reality. Since modern physics already provides clear indications of immaterial realms of existence, we should consider that these dimensions are also subject to laws. Our success in the »game of life« will depend crucially on understanding those laws that are of particu-lar importance for our human existence on an individual as well as on a social level.

Practical knowledge of the individual and collective art of living

In order to navigate successfully through life, it is not enough to deal with central philosophical questions. As in a game, we must also have relevant practical knowledge. The practical knowledge that is important for our actions arises when we ask ourselves what the understanding of the meaning of life and the nature of the world teaches us with regard to how we shape our lives. Analogous to the game strategy and tactics of a chess player, we need both an overarching life plan and an understanding of a purposeful organization of everyday life.

We can approach a meaningful life by defining essential life tasks that are in harmony with the ontological insights we have gained, especially our conception of man. Our life tasks provide the basis for long-term life planning. Based on this, further action-oriented knowledge results when we pursue the question of how the laws existing in the universe can be effectively used to achieve our major life tasks and to cope with everyday life. The more thoroughly we understand material and, if existent, metaphysical laws, the better we can benefit from them for the shaping of individual and social life.

For example, knowledge of the law of gravitation allows the construction of hydroelectric power plants. The electricity thus produced can be used in many ways to facilitate and enrich our lives. Conversely, disregarding essential laws quickly turns into a disadvantage for us. To use the example of gravity again, a jump from a tower usually ends fatally.

All the laws of the universe apply unchanged, whether we acknowledge them or ignore them, whether we like them or not. Therefore, like lighthouses, they should be observed. If the principles and norms of human action are reasonable defined, they form the framework in various life situations in which the existing laws can work in a positive way. As in a game, only appropriate practical knowledge leads to true art of living in real life.

— Candidates Of Reliable Orientation

Science or Religion?

Looking for answers

Unfortunately, neither fundamental philosophical questions nor practical questions about personal and social life can be answered easily. Our subjective reflections and limited experiences simply fall short here. So how do we arrive at realistic and satisfying answers to life’s big questions? The search for promising sources of reliable orientation inevitably leads to science and religion as possible candidates. Thus, in addition to personal experiences, it is primarily insights of a scientific or religious nature that influence people in their philosophical considerations and determine their worldview.

In the past, it was above all religion that provided orientation with regard to the big questions of life. In fact, all the great world religions in their original and pure form were metaphysical explainers of the world as well as creators of morals and meaning. Mostly originating in a time of moral decline, faith was always the driving force for people to reorient their lives and thus contribute to the development of a new advanced civilization. With the Renaissance at the latest, however, the influence and importance of religion noticeably diminished. In contrast, science experienced a real boom in the last few centuries. It brought forth numerous insights and expanded our understanding of the world in unimagined ways. The depth of our scientific insights can be seen today in the many wonders of technology that have dramatically changed the face of the world. Moreover, science inspired many thinkers in their reflections on worldview issues.

Science or religion?

There are very different opinions on the question of what role science and religion play in today’s world and what contribution they can make to answering the big questions of life and to shaping life in a practical way. Discussions on this question are often subjective and emotional. They show that it is often assumed that science and faith are mutually exclusive. As a result, people who believe in science see no reason to seriously investigate the basis of religion. Similarly, many convinced believers consider the study of scientific knowledge to be of secondary importance, if not unnecessary.

Therefore, the overarching thesis of this book, according to which science and religion are still the two essential sources of knowledge today, may at first seem surprising to many. As will be shown, science and religion are not only compatible, but form a powerful and synergistic unit.

Why the principle of the unity of science and religion is not yet widely recognized is mainly due to the fact that many people still associate science and faith with ideas that are now outdated. In fact, serious paradigm shifts have occurred in both science and religion, especially in the last 200 years, some of them completely unnoticed, which have shed a completely new light on our understanding of reality.

In the case of science, the development of quantum physics and the theory of relativity at the beginning of the 20th century in particular shattered the materialistic-mechanistic picture of the universe that was established at the time. Since then, physicists have been teaching us that matter, time and space are fundamentally different in nature from what common sense commonly imagines. As will be explained later in many ways, today’s science paints a picture of the world in which a modern faith also has an important and appropriate place. More unnoticed than in science, a fundamental paradigm shift also occurred in the field of religion. Thus, although the Bahá’í Faith, which emerged in the 19th century, is now counted among the great world religions by religious studies, its modern and in part groundbreaking contents are still largely unknown to the general public.

The developments within both domains of knowledge lead to the need for a thorough rethinking of the current opinions on the nature and meaning of science and religion.

The unity of science and religion

This book aims to show that today, perhaps for the first time, it is possible to obtain objective answers to the major worldview questions. In fact, today we have all the means at our disposal to separate the wheat from the chaff and to assemble valuable worldview fragments into a coherent overall picture appropriate to the present time. As will be shown, however, a holistic orientation according to the principle of the unity of science and religion only results when scientific understanding and religious insight are equally considered. The magnificent connections lying behind the surface will only become apparent if the various partial truths of modern science and true faith are suitably linked. Here the emphasis is deliberately on »modern« in distinction to an unnecessarily narrow pseudo-scientific view as well as »true« in the sense of an approach to metaphysical and religious questions that is as objective as possible and based on reason.

This book offers a comprehensive introduction to the fundamental principle of the unity of science and religion. Modern science and true faith meet on three levels of knowledge: basic knowledge, practical knowledge, and methodological knowledge. Analogous to the deep understanding of a game, the first two dimensions in particular are also decisive with regard to a holistic and mature worldview. In this way, a basic knowledge of the world that is as broad as possible and at the same time sufficiently deep helps us to gain a comprehensive understanding of reality, which also includes the role and nature of humans and humanity. Complementary to this, practical knowledge forms the action-oriented side of our worldview. As will be shown, science and religion contribute significantly to both dimensions of knowledge because their respective core competencies effectively complement and mutually support each other in their areas of overlap.

The pattern of overlapping complementarity is evident not only at the level of content but also at the level of methodology when we ask ourselves, »How do we arrive at knowledge?« As we shall see, science and faith form a unity in this area as well, since they agree in their basic methodology and at the same time effectively complement each other due to their natural differences. The way in which both domains contribute to a holistic view of the world becomes apparent when one analyzes the nature of scientific and religious knowledge more closely.

— Instructions For The Reader

Where can You Find What?

As shown in Figure 2, in addition to the Prologue, the present book contains 26 further chapters divided into Parts I to V, an Intermezzo and a concluding Epilogue.

Fig.2: Pillars of a Mature Worldview—the Structure of the Book

The topics covered

Part I The Need for Clear Orientation shows that not only the immense complexity that characterizes our world today, but also the fundamental question of ethics »What shall we do?« requires reliable orientation. The attempt to clarify the role that the two major systems of knowledge—science and faith—can play in the development of a mature worldview leads to the question of the nature of human knowledge.

Part II The Limits of Human Knowledge illuminates the philosophical branch of epistemology. Using the example of the two major knowledge gaining strategies of rationalism and empiricism, the well-known philosophical fact is demonstrated that, in the final analysis, there can be no absolutely certain knowledge for human beings.

Part III How Science Creates Knowledge summarizes the main findings of the philosophy of science. It explains in some detail the basic elements of scientific research that lead to the development of ever broader scientific paradigms. Scientific methodology explains how, despite all epistemological limitations, the success story of science could become possible.

Part IV The Science of Religion deals with the role of religion as an explainer of metaphysical truth. An analysis of the nature of religious truth and »true« faith based on the teachings of the most recent world religion reveals amazing parallels with the findings of epistemology and philosophy of science. In particular, the evolution of religious truth can be understood as the becoming and passing of great paradigms in the form of successive revelations. This also makes plausible the obvious decadence and powerlessness of today’s traditional religious systems.

The Intermezzo brings together the insights of Parts III and IV. From this emerge some essential features of the principle of the unity of science and faith. If both domains work together according to their nature, great synergies are released. The result is a worldview of unprecedented wholeness and depth.

Part V Pillars of a Mature Worldview is by far the most extensive part and forms the main content of the book. There, in the light of the unity of science and faith, a number of topics are dealt with that are of particular importance for our understanding of the world, our fundamental attitude to life and the meaningful shaping of our lives. Both the answers to the big questions about spirit, God, the image of man and humanity and the knowledge of central principles that must guide people’s individual and collective lives today should not be missing in any mature and holistic worldview.

The Epilogue rounds off the account by relating the significance of the worldview outlined to the turbulent times we are currently experiencing.

The use of the summaries

With around 550 pages (in the printed version without appendix), the book has become quite extensive. As the structure makes clear, Parts I to IV have primarily an introductory task. Particularly with regard to the introductions to ethics, epistemology, and philosophy of science, it would have been possible to summarize the selected content only very briefly or even to refer completely to the relevant literature. The observation that people in the digital age read classical non-fiction books less and less often, let alone very extensive treatises, would also speak in favor of such a slim presentation.

Nevertheless, leaving the book in its current, comprehensive form was a conscious decision. This way, even readers with little philosophical background can comfortably read into the basic concepts without having to consult further literature. On the other hand, in order not to bore readers who are already familiar with these basics, each chapter has been provided with a summary at the end that briefly summarizes the essential content. This also allows the reader to deal with specific topics without having to read the entire book straight away. Thus, it is possible to skip individual chapters or even entire parts without losing the thread, provided that the corresponding summaries are read beforehand.

PART I.

THE NEED FOR

CLEAR ORIENTATION

2 Turmoil Of The Present

The Complexity of the Global Crisis

When the wind of change blows, some build walls and others windmills. CHINESE PROVERB

In the Chinese language, the word »crisis« is composed of two characters, one representing danger and the other, opportunity.

JOHN F. KENNEDY

Migration is one of the topics that is moving the minds of many people due to its increasing explosiveness. In Germany, for example, the migration issue has been the subject of extremely heated and controversial debate since 2015 at the latest. The public discourse is conspicuously emotional and is characterized by simplified opinions, moralistic attributions, prejudiced viewpoints, and manipulative opinion-making. The debate shows how much those who argue for a compartmentalization strategy are outraged by being confronted with supposedly »foreign« problems for which they feel neither responsible nor in charge. But it also reveals the powerlessness of those who, affected by the suffering and fate of the people, have to realize that there are no viable solutions in sight to which they could contribute. In view of the enormous challenges, the current measures seem to be an insufficient patchwork, only a drop in the ocean.

Refugees do not leave their homes without good reason. They usually flee from conditions that make a dignified and safe life impossible. The causes of the current refugee flows lie in unbearable and hopeless realities of life such as war, oppression, exploitation, terror, poverty, persecution, discrimination, or environmental destruction. These destructive living conditions are due to multi-layered and multi-causal unhealthy developments, which the countries concerned usually cannot avert on their own. The topic of migration relentlessly holds up a mirror to humanity. It reveals a threatening imbalance in the realities of life that is extremely complex in nature. In the face of these fundamental inequalities, it does not help to look for solutions at the municipal, state or nation-state level, however welcome this may be. Even a larger community like the European Union will not be able to provide a sustainable solution. The core of the problem is global in nature and therefore requires united, committed action in a supranational context, far beyond the efforts of individual host countries and countries of origin.

— Turning Point

Where is the Global Crisis Heading?

The refugee problem, though serious, is unfortunately only one of many ills plaguing humanity today. In sum, the confluence of multiple problems and the concatenation of many destructive circumstances lead to a complex crisis of global proportions. This realization is not new. »What we perceive most inescapably about the modern era today… is its crisis«,¹ noted the German physicist and philosopher Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker (1912-2007). And the Austrian physicist and systems theorist Fritjof Capra (*1939) pointed out the depth and diversity of this global crisis in his bestseller Wendezeit as early as 1982: »We find ourselves in a state of profound, world-wide crisis. It is a complex, multi-dimensional crisis whose facets touch every aspect of our lives—our health and livelihood, the quality of our environment and our social relationships, our economy, technology, and politics. It is a crisis of intellectual, moral, and spiritual dimensions; a crisis of a scale and urgency unprecedented in recorded human history. For the first time we have to face the very real threat of extinction of the human race and of all life on this planet.«²

Since these lines were written almost 40 years ago, the crisis has worsened and the process of upheaval associated with it is becoming clearer day by day. According to the Austrian economist Fredmund Malik (*1944), a profound social transformation is underway that is unparalleled in history: »The economy and society of virtually all countries are going through one of the most fundamental transformations in history… We are witnesses to a revolutionary transformation of the old world as we knew it into a new world of the as yet unknown. It is the emergence of a fundamentally new order and social functioning—and a social REvolution of a new kind. In a few years, almost everything will be new and different: what we do, how we do it and why we do it—how we produce, transport, finance and consume, how we care and heal, educate, learn, research, and innovate, how we inform, communicate, and cooperate, how we work and live.«³

We can rightly ask ourselves: Will this »new world of the as yet unknown« be humane and desirable? Will the current crisis change for the better or end in disaster? At present, it seems open where the journey will lead. However, one thing is becoming increasingly clear: If humanity wants to avert the countless grievances and dangers, it must recognize the causes behind the symptoms, develop viable solutions based on a realistic vision and finally, like a Herculean task, implement them step by step in a courageous and systematic manner. The following sections outline the main features of the current crisis in order to gain a better understanding of its causes. It all started with a phenomenon that is in itself very positive: scientific progress.

— Subdue The Earth

The Explosion of Knowledge and Technology

Much has happened since God’s command to the people to subdue the earth was formulated in the Old Testament. In the meantime, we have not only explored the infinite expanses of the universe, but have also looked into the innermost parts of the atoms. Unstoppably, we elicit secrets from creation and skillfully use them to steadily expand the boundaries once set by nature. Almost daily we witness new discoveries and possibilities.

The knowledge explosion

Our knowledge did not develop evenly over time. Rather, the cycles in which human knowledge doubled became shorter and shorter. While it took about 100 years for the knowledge of 1850 to double, today, depending on the definition of knowledge, we have already reached doubling cycles of a few years, if not months.⁴

Even more important than the quantitative increase in knowledge is the quality and relevance of our findings. The increasing depth of our understanding of the world enables us to develop powerful tools. Used correctly, these technological innovations can make our lives easier and give us previously unimaginable freedoms and opportunities. Much of what is commonplace for us today would have been considered an unthinkable miracle 150 years ago. Assuming we could travel back in time to the year 1850, how could we explain our digitalized world to the people there? How could we describe a PC, a smartphone, or a PlayStation, for example? We would probably not be able to find a suitable description that would give a 19th century person a realistic idea of our technical devices, let alone even begin to understand how they work.

Challenges in dealing with powerful technology

Of course, not everything that is feasible can be used without risk. As a rule, every new possibility also has a downside that must be dealt with appropriately. For example, our knowledge of the properties of atoms can be used in very different ways: either to produce terrible weapons of mass destruction or to generate electricity—what a fundamental difference! But even the peaceful use of nuclear power to generate energy is not without problems, as we all know. For example, in the case of today’s nuclear power plants, in addition to the safety issue, there is above all the question of the safe storage of the unavoidable nuclear waste.

Another example is the constantly advancing digitalization. This comparatively young phenomenon is revolutionizing our working and living environments and allows us completely new and great opportunities for information exchange and collaboration. What would our society today be without it? However, the process of digitalization is equally rapid and subliminal. In fact, many people are not yet aware of the scope of the digitalization tsunami already on the horizon. For example, society is not prepared for the fact that in the foreseeable future a huge number of its citizens may no longer have a place in the prevailing economic system. There is an urgent need to clarify how the process of digitalization is to be adequately shaped in view of its manifold consequences. Who would be in a position to specify the necessary framework conditions and to define them in a binding manner?

The new possibilities created by scientific and technical progress are not only inextricably linked to a decision-making and design task. Depending on where the decision-making authority lies, there is also the question of power that requires a solution. Who is legitimized to decide which technology may be used in which form? Can it work in the long run, for example, that the West determines which countries are allowed to have nuclear technologies?

But that is not all: The tremendous progress in science and technology is also accompanied by the two megatrends of globalization and individualization, which further complicate the challenge of dealing wisely with the available opportunities for the benefit of all people. These two trends are briefly discussed in the following sections.

— Megatrend Globalization

Global Village Life

Globalization is the process of increasingly cross-border and worldwide interdependence of society, science, economy, environment, politics and culture. These areas are interconnected by a large number of interwoven processes for the extraction and distribution of goods, energy, raw materials, capital, technologies, information, and services. The resulting multitude of mutual dependencies and interrelationships is evident at the level of individuals, institutions, societies and states.

The omnipresence of globalization

The German comedian Urban Priol (*1961) illustrated the omnipresence of globalization in an entertaining way using the tragic accidental death of Lady Di as an example: »Diana came from England, her boyfriend from Egypt. Both died in a tunnel in France in a car from Germany with an engine from the Netherlands and a driver from Belgium. The driver had whiskey from Scotland in his blood. Paparazzi from Italy chased them on Japanese motorbikes. Doctors from America gave first aid with medicines from Brazil. A Luxembourger wrote the investigation report on a Chinese PC with chips from Taiwan, a monitor from Korea and a keyboard from Vietnam. Workers from Bangladesh had assembled the PC in Singapore. In the factory of an Indian. And the wreckage of the crashed car was disposed of by Algerian rubbish collectors to get the car ready for export to Lebanon at Auto-Osman in Turkey.«⁵

There are different opinions on when exactly the process of globalization began. However, there is unanimous agreement that it has accelerated tremendously, especially in recent decades, in the wake of exploding technical progress. Among other things, modern transport and communication technologies contributed to this. The technical revolution has virtually abolished all spatial and temporal boundaries. The new possibilities made us mobile and our home planet small. The Canadian media scientist Marshall McLuhan (1911-1980) coined the term »global village« for this as early as 1962. What once seemed like an infinite expanse to the pedestrian and carriage driver has shrunk to a global village for the airplane user equipped with smartphone and laptop. This shrinking of scales and the resulting moving together of people can be seen today in all areas of life.

Economy

Let us first look at the economic sector. Global trade is not a new phenomenon and its history goes back a long way. Strictly speaking, economic activity has always been a cross-border affair in which political barriers have always been artificial obstacles. Economic division of labor follows economic, technical, and geographical circumstances far more than arbitrarily drawn, political borders. So, it is only logical that the economic sector, always striving for expansion and the greatest possible growth, very quickly used the new technological achievements to its advantage. This led to hitherto unimagined possibilities in trade and production. As the means of transport became faster, more efficient, and safer, and at the same time transport costs were reduced, international trade increased significantly and conquered new markets. Sophisticated computer and logistics systems easily connected far-flung areas and opened up the possibility for business to organize and set up globally. In the course of these favorable conditions, it was only logical from an economic point of view to successively abolish rules and regulations that slowed down global economic growth by means of liberalization and deregulation. Today, the economy operates globally, always driven to make the best possible use of available resources and regional advantages. Capital, goods, services, and labor markets have long since grown together. In the course of this, the once largely independent national economies have increasingly dissolved and merged into a global economy. What began in primeval times with personal barter transactions led via regional, supraregional, national and continental markets finally to global trade.

Science

Like the economy, science was also predestined for globalization according to its inner logic. For the scientific spirit of discovery, the world as a whole with its countless phenomena is always the target of its interest. With growing technical possibilities, the circle of exploration of scientists also expanded. Step by step, the whole earth, indeed the entire universe, became the goal of scientific research and brought about the discovery of ever new phenomena and connections. Technical progress made it possible to exchange ideas with scientists from other nations, regardless of their origin, religion, or culture, and to come closer together to solving scientific mysteries. The drastic increase in worldwide cooperation between scientists and the development of international research projects and studies prove that scientific knowledge has long since become a global undertaking in many cases.

Politics

Politics also shows an unmistakable trend towards globalization. Compared to the economy and science, however, the transition from national principles of order to globally operating organizations is sluggish. Although the first serious efforts in this direction were made a hundred years ago with the founding of the League of Nations, the political discussion today still largely takes place from a nation-state perspective. Although the globe has long since shrunk into a single large country, even modern people still feel less like cosmopolitans than citizens of their home country. Political thinking and decision-making is still largely shaped by the nation state. The example of the European Union impressively shows how unstable and vulnerable supranational alliances still are. In addition to the economic advantages, there are a number of other extremely plausible arguments in favor of this union. And yet we are experiencing how quickly difficulties in the practical implementation of the »European idea« lead to backward-looking, nationalist forces gaining momentum and seriously endangering the still young unity and its achievements.

In summary, both the establishment of supranational institutions, such as the United Nations, and numerous international alliances and treaties in their current form can only be seen as intermediate steps on the way to a politically globalized humanity.

Religion

The globalization of religion is similarly arduous to that of politics. Since most people’s thinking today is still predominantly nation-state-based and shaped by the prevailing cultural roots, it is little wonder that many people consider those values and beliefs they grew up with to be right and superior to others. This narrow and prejudiced attitude slows down the development of a common understanding that could create a new identity that overcomes old restrictions.

What is needed above all is a global ethic which, as a common basis of values, connects people’s thoughts, feelings and actions and represents their fundamental needs and interests. If global principles of order are to help humankind to achieve justice and peace in the long term, a suitable global ethic must fill this system with life.

— Global Risks And Side Effects

Humanity as a World Community of Destiny

Globalization is an unmistakable reality today. The extent and structure of the worldwide division of labor have become so differentiated and intensive that, at least from an economic point of view, the respective national borders have almost lost their significance. But individuals now also live a globalized lifestyle: Modern people study a few semesters away, work for global players, invest their assets in international markets, consume products from all over the world on the World Wide Web, travel to the most distant parts of the world, enjoy the treasures and beauties of foreign cultures, cultivate international friendships, and follow worldwide events with a single mouse click.

Reversing the process of globalization, as some skeptics suggest, would be neither possible nor desirable. Nevertheless, globalization has many downsides and presents humanity with a number of existential challenges. A prime example is the current ecological crisis.

The ecological crisis

The global, profit-driven campaign of the economy and the increased consumption behavior of people have now left clear traces everywhere on earth and triggered reactions that cannot be overlooked. Our ecosystem is suffering considerably from our modern way of life. Before the industrial revolution, human intervention and influence on the environment was comparatively small and localized. The affected parts of our ecosystem were therefore usually always able to regenerate. With the tremendous technological possibilities, however, increasingly serious violations of natural processes became possible and the damage was thus felt globally. Today, for example, an accident in a nuclear reactor can devastate entire regions in the long term.

Less spectacular, but no less damaging, is the overall impact of the use of the earth’s natural resources by some eight billion people. The continuing growth of the world’s population, together with steadily increasing per capita consumption, is a major contributor to the current environmental crisis. As long as large parts of humanity allow themselves to consume selfishly, carelessly, and shortsightedly, while other parts of humanity struggle to survive and therefore cannot afford to comply with sufficient environmental standards, the finite resources and riches of our earth will inevitably be exploited and the ecosystem permanently damaged. The enormous increase in traffic due to global trade also brings numerous, undesirable consequences.

The destructive effects of this way of life are not only reflected in littering, pollution, poisoning, desertification, erosion and forest and species extinction, but also show up in numerous natural disasters. Their frequency and magnitude are increasing noticeably around the world. They not only damage and destroy resources and livelihoods, but also cost an enormous amount of money. Wherever you look, the current destruction of our ecosystem exceeds its capacity to regenerate many times over.

The environmental problems and disasters of modern times cannot, by their very nature, be confined to regions or nations. They know neither man-made borders nor do they stop at them. Problems caused by one country through negligence, existential distress or greed for profit, the consequences also affect other »innocent« countries. All of this makes it clear that no country can any longer insulate itself from ecological catastrophes like an island of the blessed. Likewise, no country can avoid its responsibility with regard to the common ecosystem any longer. The fact that the whole of humanity has become the cause and the sufferer of an unreflective, irresponsible, and unregulated use of the planet’s resources makes the problem a complex one that seems almost insoluble.

Some time ago, the overpowering influence of humans on nature sparked a debate among scientists about whether it justifies the proclamation of a new epoch. Since then, there has been increasing talk of the Anthropocene, the era of human activity.

The social crisis

The ecological downside of globalization is joined in no less depressing a way by its social downside. Although the material prosperity of humanity is steadily increasing due to technical progress and the expanding world economy, there are also many losers. These include not only individuals, but entire ethnic groups and nations that could not even come close to participating on an equal footing in the globalization process. Globalization gave enormous advantages above all to those states and corporations that were able to seize the global opportunities available to them better than others because of their innovative technological possibilities. In addition to the industrialized nations, which were also able to dictate the rules of the game to other states due to their positions of power, these were above all the emerging countries, which managed to catch up at high ecological and social costs. What remained were the poorest nations that could not integrate into the global economy and as a result were and still are relentlessly exploited by the other states as cheap suppliers of raw materials.

The difference between extreme wealth and abject poverty is grave. Currently, wealth is unequally distributed in an alarming way and there is a dramatic wealth gap. The poverty of the poorest nations is expressed in inhumane and existentially threatening living conditions: undernourishment and malnutrition, poor health, low life expectancy, high infant and child mortality, low levels of education, lack of prospects, unemployment, homelessness, uprooting and exclusion from social structures.

It is particularly worrying that the gap between rich and poor is not closing but is currently drifting even further apart. In view of the big profiteers of globalization, the extreme social inequality is not only grossly unjust, but also poses considerable dangers to political stability and peace. To the extent that an increasing number of people in our global society feel grossly disadvantaged, powerlessness, anger and despair will continue to grow. This fosters emotions that fuel hatred and a readiness to use violence nationally and internationally and urge for discharge. Reducing the gap between the poor and the rich is therefore not only an imperative of justice and humanity, but also the central prerequisite for the peaceful future of all of us, no matter where on the globe we are.

The dangers of war and terror

At the latest since the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001, it has become clear that it is no longer possible to close our minds to the existing international asymmetries between the states and peoples of the world. The terrorist attacks not only revealed the anger of the disadvantaged about the consequences and injustices of globalization. They also impressively showed that terrorism has meanwhile organized itself globally and now holds an enormous potential for action. Terrorist groups have long since built up worldwide networks that work both effectively and efficiently with the help of technological progress. The inability to reliably prevent terrorist attacks is now causing uncertainty and fear in the West as well.

Organized crime now operates on a global scale similar to that of multinational corporations and is increasingly conquering new markets due to the high demand. Criminal organizations now generate gigantic sums of money through environmental and economic crime, human and arms trafficking, drug smuggling, corruption, and bribery. The liberalization of trade opens up numerous opportunities for them across national borders, and the deregulation of the financial markets makes the »legalization« of their profits almost child’s play. Organized crime poses a serious threat to economic life and social systems. The prosecution of crimes, on the other hand, is a Sisyphean task that rarely succeeds in the long term, given the lack of supranational principles of order and insufficiently concerted cooperation.

In a globalized world, there is a real danger that permanent social imbalances, combined with the increasingly easy availability of weapons of mass destruction, will lead to war and terror on a scale that humanity has never experienced before.

The list of problems plaguing humanity today could be continued. It illustrates the seriousness of the situation and shows how far we are from shaping globalization in a way that benefits humanity as a whole. The major problems facing humanity are not only complex but global in scope. As members of a world community of destiny, everyone is in the same boat, even if not everyone is yet equally aware of this. To better understand the nature of global problems, it is helpful to look at a phenomenon known as the »tragedy of the commons«.

— Tragedy Of The Commons

The Lack of Global Problem-Solving Strategies

Imagine a lake that is managed by several fishermen. As long as fishing is sustainable, the reproductive capacity of the fish stock, which is important for all, is guaranteed. However, the situation can change quickly if the number of fishermen or the catch rate increases. As soon as both reach a critical level, there is a risk of overfishing the lake. In order to maintain the fish stock in the long term and to sustainably secure the livelihood of the fishermen, the catch rate would have to be urgently reduced again.

The tragedy of the commons

How does such a situation play out in practice? How will fishermen actually behave in the face of this serious threat? Although most fishermen do realize that it is high time to take countermeasures, they will not like this fact with their wallets in mind. As a result, very few are likely to voluntarily limit their catch rate for the conservation of fish stocks and the good of the fishing community. Hardly anyone wants to be one of the »stupid ones« who cut back while others continue to profit unabashedly. The vast majority will therefore try to make as much profit as possible before the source of income is exhausted. Some will hope that the warnings may have exaggerated and, with a bit of luck, the threatening situation will resolve itself. And so the day will finally come when the lake is fished out and all fishermen are deprived of their livelihood.

The problem just outlined can be observed everywhere where resources are used collectively. It is called the »commons dilemma« or the »tragedy of the commons«.⁶ The concept was introduced to a broad public in 1968 by the American microbiologist and ecologist Garrett Hardin (1915-2003).⁷ The tragedy of the commons is that every freely available common good, which is limited, is threatened by overuse, which ultimately endangers the users themselves.

The planet as a global common good

Wherever individuals benefit but the costs are borne by the community, the tragedy of the commons lurks. The dilemma intensifies with the size and importance of the resource as well as the scope and anonymity of the circle of users.

It is easy to see that many of the global challenges are typical commons problems. The resource at stake in the global age is our entire planet, and the users are all people equally. Humans intervene in the earth’s ecosystem intentionally or unintentionally, consciously or unconsciously. Very few people, companies, corporations, or states want to deliberately damage the ecosystem through overexploitation or even drive it to the brink of destruction. Nevertheless, our economic interests cause massive interventions in our environment. If these interventions are too great in total, sustainable use of our earth’s resources is no longer guaranteed. Then even a system as large as our home planet slowly but surely gets out of balance. Whether it is CO2 and pollutant emissions, overfishing and littering of the oceans, extensive agriculture, or deforestation—a few always have a shortterm advantage, while the big bill has to be paid sooner or later by all of humanity.

Due to the size of planet earth, it can take a long time for overexploitation to show its effects in individual areas. In some cases, it will only be future generations that will suffer. In the long run, however, it is humanity as a whole that will feel the dramatic consequences of our careless use of the earth’s resources.

The absence of global governance

The nature of the problem related to the use of shared resources makes it clear that it would be naive to rely on the insight and sense of responsibility of the respective large users. It is already apparent that they are thinking primarily of their own interests rather than those of the community. How can our ecosystem be protected from our destructive unaccountability? A privatization of the resources of our ecosystem is out of the question for ethical reasons alone. Therefore, the sustainable use of a global common good can only be achieved through sound management. Just as a small group of users can agree on adequate rules and measures for the preservation of a specific common good that will benefit everyone in the long run, humanity can also agree on a global management or administration of its global resources. However, due to its global scope, establishing such a management system is a complex challenge. Unlike a residential community, at the supranational level there is neither an owners’ meeting that sets the rules nor a caretaker who ensures that the people comply with them.

The big question is therefore what a global political system, a »global governance«, would have to look like in concrete terms. Which socio-political processes would be necessary on a supranational level and how would they have to interact with national regulations? What forms of opinion-forming and decision-making processes would be expedient, what controls would be necessary? The establishment of a global social order is a demanding conceptual task if one does not want to encourage excessive centralism or even a world dictatorship. As utopian as the accomplishment of this task may seem, it will prove to be a necessity without alternative for a troubled and pressed humanity. The development of adequate instruments at the global level is indispensable for the sustainable safeguarding of the basis of human life.⁸

Similar considerations apply to man-made systems, such as the global financial system. This, too, is to be regarded as a social common good. We are all dependent on this system and feel directly or indirectly when the system is abused to the advantage of a few. The fact that the same basic expert discussions are held again and again after every financial crisis shows that here, too, suitable regulations for the sustainable stability of the system have not yet been established.

In summary, it can be said that the major human problems are very complex simply because of their global nature. After globalization, let us now look at another megatrend with major implications for people and humanity: the phenomenon of individualization.

— Megatrend Individualization

The Uniqueness of the Individual

In earlier centuries, people were strongly embedded in local communities with established ideas, values, and traditions. As much as the social guidelines promised orientation and routine on the one hand, they also restricted people in their freedom on the other. In Western society, the first efforts to demand the individual’s right to freedom, autonomy and uniqueness began with the Renaissance. The liberating process from heteronomy to self-determination is called individualization. However, this process could only spread and accelerate decisively with a socially relevant increase in education and prosperity. The desire to shape one’s life in a selfdetermined way and no longer to remain in the stranglehold of traditional ideas has largely become a reality today. Modern people generally have the means and opportunities to lead their lives in accordance with their own individual needs, desires, and values. The citizens of the affluent nations are currently making ample use of this great freedom.

The striving for individualization went hand in hand with the pluralization and differentiation of all areas of life. New desires ultimately required new options for consumption, action, and design. Once again, it was the economy that sensed new business opportunities and created a multitude of new, personalized products and services by means of which individuals can express themselves in a very individual way. The trend to define oneself through one’s lifestyle is still unbroken.

Pluralization is not only expressed in new consumption patterns. It is also giving rise to new values, a new culture of everyday life and leisure, and a changed world of work, which make it possible for almost everyone to realize an individual life plan. The former standard biography has become a discontinued model. Today, everyone can be happy according to his or her own wishes, as long as they have the means to do so. Thus, the life plans and styles that can be found in society today could hardly be more diverse and colorful. The phenomenon of individualization is a universally observable megatrend that is fundamentally positive. If people break out of unnecessarily restrictive and outdated traditions in order to lead a life tailored to their personal inclinations and talents, this is only desirable. From this perspective, the trend towards individualization is not only to be seen as a beneficial liberation, but also underpins the value and uniqueness of the individual.

Like every major development, individualization brings with it special challenges and demands new skills in thinking, feeling, and acting from each individual. If individualization is exaggerated, it has a destructive effect on both the individual and society.

— Multi-Option Society

The Loss of Reliable Reference Points

In the meantime, individualization has long since exceeded a healthy and beneficial extent. This is reflected not only in the loss of important overarching points of reference that provided individuals and society with meaning, support, and orientation, but also in a worrying fragmentation and instability of the community.

The explosion of decision-making impositions

A society largely geared towards individualism makes modern everyday life with its multitude of offers, opportunities and obligations a challenging task. We constantly have to choose and make decisions. The many options, which on the one hand give us a high degree of freedom, on the other hand spoil us for choice. The Swiss sociologist Peter Gross (1941-2023) coined the term »multi-option society«⁹ to describe this situation, the main characteristic of which is the explosion of decision-making impositions. These range from comparatively trivial questions of everyday life to serious questions about shaping one’s life in general, one’s professional career,