Bathed in Blood: Hunting and Mastery in the Old South

By Nicolas W. Proctor

The hunt, like the church, courthouse, and family, played an integral role in southern society and culture during the antebellum era. Regardless of color or class, southern men hunted. Although hunters always recognized the tangible gains of their mission—meat, hides, furs—they also used the hunt to communicate ideas of gender, race, class, masculinity, and community. Hunting was very much a social activity, and for many white hunters it became a drama in which they could display their capacity for mastery over women, blacks, the natural world, and their own passions.

Nicolas Proctor argues in Bathed in Blood that because slaves frequently accompanied white hunters into the field, whites often believed that hunting was a particularly effective venue for the demonstration of white supremacy. Slaves interpreted such interactions quite differently: they remained focused on the products of the hunt and considered the labor performed at the behest of their owners as an opportunity to improve their own condition. Whether acquired as a reward from a white hunter or as a result of their own independent—often illicit—efforts, game provided them with an important supplementary food source, an item for trade, and a measure of autonomy. By sharing their valuable resources with other slaves, slave hunters also strengthened the bonds within their own community. In a society predicated upon the constant degradation of African Americans, such simple acts of generosity became symbolic of resistance and had a cohesive effect on slave families.

Proctor forges a new understanding of the significance of hunting in the antebellum South through his analyses of a wealth of magazine articles and private papers, diaries, and correspondence.

• Language: English
• Publisher: University of Virginia Press
• Release date: Mar 1, 2002
• ISBN: 9780813921747

Nicolas W. Proctor

Nicolas W. Proctor is professor of history at Simpson College.

Book preview

Bathed in Blood

Hunting and Mastery in the Old South

Nicolas W. Proctor

University Press of Virginia

Charlottesville and London

The University Press of Virginia

© 2002 by the Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia

All rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

First published 2002

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Proctor, Nicolas W., 1969–

Bathed in blood : hunting and mastery in the Old South / Nicolas W. Proctor

     p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references (p.    ).

ISBN 0-8139-2087-6 (cloth: alk. paper)—ISBN 0-8139-2091-4 (pbk.: alk. paper)

1. Hunting—Philosophy—Southern States—History. 2. Hunting—Psychological aspects—Southern States—History. 3. Hunting—Social aspects—Southern States—History. I. Title.

SK14 .P76 2002

799.2975—dc21

2001045354

For my grandparents

CONTENTS

List of Illustrations

Acknowledgments

Introduction

1. Game, Landscape, and the Law

2. Hunters at Home and in the Field

3. Hunting and the Masculine Ideal

4. Finding Peers: The Criteria of Exclusion

5. The Community of the Hunt

6. Slavery, Paternalism, and the Hunt

7. Slave Perceptions of the Hunt

Epilogue

Notes

Selected Bibliography

Index

Illustrations

Killing a bear

Partridge shooting

Pothunters

Boys hunting rabbit

The ignominy of a greenhorn

Hunting camp

Osman

Treed!

Acknowledgments

FIRST I would like to thank the earnest white-haired gentleman on the upstairs porch of Square Books in Oxford, Mississippi, who misheard me. He and I spent the better part of an afternoon discussing various kinds of hives and flowers, the dynamics of swarming, and the alleged health-giving powers of royal jelly. We drank many cups of coffee and I learned a good deal, but I would like to make it clear up front that this is not a book about honey in the Old South. This conversation did not shape the conclusions of this book, but it does illustrate one of the great benefits of being a writer: you meet interesting people. This encounter marked one of the unexpected friendships that I struck up as a result of this project, and whatever the merits of this work, I will always treasure the conversations and correspondences that grew out of the researching, writing, revisiting, and rewriting that produced this book.

Since I first became interested in antebellum hunting as a graduate student at Emory University I have depended upon the kindness of strangers. Several organizations provided me with generous financial support. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation (through the Mellon Southern Studies Dissertation Fellowship), the National Society of the Colonial Dames (through the American History Scholarship Award), and Emory University gave me the funding I needed to complete the initial stages of the project.

This money would have been useless had it not been for the skill and good humor of librarians and archivists from a variety of institutions. The staffs of Duke University, Emory University, Historic New Orleans, the Library of Congress, Louisiana State University, Tulane University, University of Georgia, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, University of South Carolina, University of Virginia, and the College of William and Mary all provided me with expert assistance. The interlibrary loan staffs of Emory University and Simpson College (Kristi Ellingson) deserve special thanks for all of their hard work on my behalf.

Archival work, interlibrary loan, and reel after reel of microfilm provided a mass of information. Making sense of it was the real challenge, and if there is anything interesting contained within these covers other than direct quotations it is doubtless due to the efforts of Christine Lambert. She read substantial portions of every draft, commented on everything, and undertook the labor of editing the penultimate draft. She is one smart cookie. James Roark also provided a great deal of guidance and feedback. After indulgently accepting my proposed dissertation topic, he provided patience, insight, and encouragement in equal and steady measure. He is a true gentleman scholar.

The foundation of this book was laid down in graduate school, and without the friendships that I forged at Emory the early stages of this project would have been hellish and unpleasant. Fortunately the EAYC crew (Andrew May, Daniel Aldridge III, Jonathan Heller, Steve Oatis, Dave Freeman, Kristian Blaich, and the lovely and enigmatic Meredith), Margaret Storey, Lara Smith, Jonathan Harris, Miche Baskett, Amy Rose Oatis, Belle and James Tuten, Mary Catherine Cain, and Christine Stolba made my years in Atlanta and Decatur pleasant ones. I would particularly like to thank Elizabeth Fox-Genovese and the other members of the Mellon Southern Studies Dissertation seminar for their feedback on my earliest, shabbiest attempts to make sense of the information that now appears (in greatly altered form) in chapters 2 and 3.

Other historians have graciously provided their comments, criticisms, and suggestions at every stage of this book's development. These luminaries include John Reiger, Michael Bellesîles, Mart Stewart, Patrick Allitt, Dan Carter, John Juricek, Eugene Genovese, and the two anonymous readers arranged by the University Press of Virginia. I have also profited from discussing the project with various Simpson College faculty, several of whom read or commented on the manuscript. Nancy St. Clair, Steve Rose, Bill Friedricks, Owen Duncan, John Pauley, and Brian Sandberg all shaped aspects of this work. The influence of my students—particularly those who braved the horrors of Historiography—also appears herein.

The academic world is not the pinnacle of myopia and fuzzy thinking that many condemn it as being, nevertheless I feel particularly fortunate to have had a number of insightful critics that usually steer clear of the world of caps and gowns. D. A. Brown, Linda L. Brown, Wiley Prewitt, David Criner Jr., Wister Cooke, Dan Kostopulos, Karl Serbousek, Devon Holder, Tom Ryan, Todd Mennotti, and Charles Portis helped me keep the text from wandering too far into the recondite world of theory and textual criticism. For that I thank them (and you should too).

The staff of the University Press of Virginia has done a good job shepherding me through the mysterious and convoluted publishing process. Dick Holway, Ellie Goodman, Ellen Satrom, and others have tolerated my inexperience with remarkable good cheer.

Show me a gentleman devoted to the chase and I will show you, with rare exception, the noblest work of God, an honest man, respected for manly virtues, a good husband and father, a zealous friend, and an open enemy. The rich man's equal, the poor man's benefactor—richly adorning the pages of his life with the shining virtues of charity and benevolence—whose memory will be a green spot in the dreary waste of sordid worldliness.

Mississippi governor Alexander McNutt

Dey is one thing I would love fer folks to know an’ dat is how de colored folks lak to take deir dogs at night an’ go out in de swamps an’ tree a possum. Dats’ times wid de dogs a barkin’ an’ de moon a shinin’ an a possum up a tree or in a stump hole. When de possum is kotched he will cull up, he is den put on de end ob a pole, he stays all culled up an’ holds on tight. Yo’ can throw day pole ’cross yo’ shoulders an’ go home an’ bake dat possum on de hot coals in de fire place wid seet 'taters an coffee. Dat is a eatin’.

Mississippi slave Robert Laird

After the report, seeing nothing of the deer, I hurried forward, and there lay as fine a doe as I ever killed, with her brains blown out.

Maryland hunter Meshach Browning

Introduction

THE HUNT , like the church, courthouse, and family, played an integral role in the society and culture of the Old South. Regardless of color or class, southern men hunted; they shot, trapped, and ran their dogs after a great variety of animals. During the antebellum era most hunters favored black bear, deer, wild turkey, partridge, duck, and fox, but they also hunted opossum, raccoon, lynx, squirrel, rabbit, and an array of wildfowl. They also shot the occasional puma, wolf, and elk, although these species had become exceedingly rare by the antebellum era. Aspiring hunters who lacked their own guns and dogs could usually borrow them from neighbors, friends, or relatives. Many hunters also set snares and built traps, and if they knew where rabbits or opossums slept, particularly humble hunters needed nothing more than a big stick.

The resulting meat, hides, and furs reinforced hunters’ claims to patriarchal authority as providers for their households. Hunters always recognized the symbolism that accompanied these utilitarian aspects of the hunt, but during the antebellum era, many white hunters began using the hunt as a venue for the display of increasingly complex ideas about gender, race, class, and community. As a definitively masculine pursuit, hunting made an effective stage for increasingly elaborate exhibitions of masculinity and power. In the woods and fields, in the company of other men, these hunters could demonstrate their masculinity with unparalleled clarity.

Race and class altered the form of these masculine displays. Members of the elite took great interest in emerging ideas of sportsmanship, which emphasized the act of hunting over the acquisition of meats and hides. Conversely, yeoman and poor white hunters focused on the utility of hunting because the products of the hunt helped confirm their patriarchal authority over their households. They rarely observed the elite rules of sport, but they did obey certain conventions when they hunted, which defined their position within their communities and families. Slaves hunted in a much more circumscribed world. Beholden to their owners and devoted to their families, they played multiple roles when they hunted. As loyal bondsmen, they sacrificed their personal safety for their owners’ pleasure. As members of families, they used hunting as a tool for survival and an instrument of social cohesion.

Chapter 1 outlines the various historic developments that shaped hunting in the South from the colonial era to the outbreak of the Civil War. By chronologically examining the dynamics of hunting opportunity, method, and technology, this chapter sketches the context for the chapters that follow. This chapter considers the interactions between the environment, the supply of game, the development of hunting law, the rise of the sporting press, and the development of the various literary images of the hunter.

Subsequent chapters are more thematic. They examine different aspects of the social drama of the hunt during the period from 1800 to 1860. Chapters 2 through 5 focus on ruling-class whites because that is who the bulk of the material (books, letters, journals, and periodicals) discusses. Although the specifics about these conceptions of masculinity were the purview of the slaveholding elite, many of the broad conclusions regarding manhood and community can be applied to yeoman farmers, townspeople, and poor whites.

As a social construct, gender meant little unless verified by appreciative observers. Because the hunt contained manifold expressions of identity, hunters played to a variety of audiences in their search for recognition. The opinions and observations of white women and blacks were important to white hunters, but the primary audience for the exploits of white hunters was a select group of male peers. Hunters, particularly the young and inexperienced, relied upon the judgments of other hunters to validate their claims to manhood. The lessons of boyhood and the vagaries of these various audiences appear in chapter 2, which also describes the structure of hunting fraternities and details particular niche-oriented forms of display such as paternalism, gift giving, trophies, and storytelling.

Chapter 3 details the relationship between white manhood and the emergence of the hunter as a masculine ideal. Founded upon prowess, self-control, and mastery, this image of masculinity appeared in a variety of settings. This chapter focuses on the literary incarnations of the ideal, but it also draws upon a variety of related materials including correspondence, diaries, and periodicals.

Chapter 4 picks up on the idea of hunting fraternities and examines the various criteria of exclusion that hunters used to define exactly who their peers were. Some fraternities created exclusivity by snubbing urbanites and recognizably continental Europeans, while others used either conspicuous consumption or the emerging rules of sport to set them apart from the majority of white men. By creating the other, fraternities simultaneously increased the exclusivity of their displays and clarified their identities. Despite the enthusiasm with which hunters advocated strict rules of sport and various criteria of exclusion in books and periodicals, few of these criteria were more than broad guidelines. Chapter 5 looks at the internal dynamic of hunting fraternities. Examining various sources makes it apparent that congeniality, group cohesiveness, and a sense of community tended to override churlish behavior once an individual was accepted as an equal. Despite the popularization of various criteria of exclusion and inclusion by the sporting press, the final assessment of other hunters depended upon firsthand experience. After being accepted into a community, the constraints popularized by the sporting press (including the rules of sport) became less important.

The peculiarities of southern hunting owed a great deal to the existence of slavery. Part of its popularity arose from the fact that hunting was a particularly effective venue for the demonstration of white supremacy. Chapter 6 focuses on the occasions when slaves hunted at their owners’ behest and the times when they accompanied white hunters into the field where they performed a variety of duties. Slaves were brought into the field to perform menial labor, but they were also present so that whites could demonstrate the extent of their mastery. In some cases slaveholders felt so confident that they equipped particularly trusted slaves with firearms. Few scenes dramatized the paternalist ethos more pointedly than a slave and his master taking the field together.

Chapter 7 examines these interactions from the point of view of slaves who primarily considered the hunt as an opportunity to ameliorate their own condition. Game provided them with a supplementary food source, an item for trade, and a measure of autonomy. By sharing this valuable resource with their families and friends, enslaved hunters strengthened the bonds of community and kinship. Living in a society predicated upon constant degradation, a simple act of generosity could become a symbol of resistance. Likewise, property gained through illicit transactions with other slaves facilitated the stability of the slave family, which in turn buttressed the cohesion of the slave community. By reconceptualizing hunting as an activity that benefited the slave community, these hunters found ways to create their own meanings for the labor they performed at the behest of their owners.

Hunting stories appeared in various nineteenth-century magazines, including several, such as the Spirit of Times, that devoted themselves exclusively to the world of sport. Although rich, these sources do require a critical eye. Slaveholders’ papers, diaries, and correspondence provide depth, while documents like the Works Progress Administration ex-slave interviews, court records, and travel accounts help provide a contrast to the planter vision. In these versions of the hunt, black and white participants occupied the same space, but the meanings they ascribed to their actions varied. These sources allow the white planter's oft-grandiloquent monologue to become a conversation among pseudo-aristocratic sporting poseurs, unapologetic market hunters, devoted outdoorsmen, naive thrill seekers, and pothunting pragmatists.

By exploring this conversation about hunting, I have tried to present a balanced description of an important and cherished southern institution. Indeed, for many white men hunting was a consuming passion. They hunted as avidly as they attended church. They wrote about their experiences in the field with the same care and detail that they devoted to their business dealings, and they selected their hunting companions as carefully as their political representatives. But hunting was more than the preserve of a few aficionados. It was an activity that all southerners, black and white, male and female, rich and poor, rural and urban, knew something about. It is this far-reaching familiarity that makes hunting a valuable window on antebellum society and culture as a whole.

1. Game, Landscape, and the Law

Oh shame, a burning shame, to every true sportsman—the farmer, the citizen, and legislator—who quietly and indifferently sanctions such a barbarous practice of wholesale destruction of the partridge, openly, as it were, under their very nose, and yet they will not enforce a word of rebuke to prevent and frown down, and punish by enactment of a proper game law, the rascally pot hunter, the poaching man hawk.

R. L. B., a South Carolina hunter, 1858

ONE OF THE central motifs of hunting in the South is the hunter's quest for plentiful game. Some of the earliest European settlers along the southeastern coast of North America worried that the supply of desirable game in the area was already diminishing. This concern, whether justified or not, meant that almost from the beginning of European settlement those hunters with political and social power tried to control the access of other, less powerful hunters to the best animals. This contest produced a series of laws, habits, narratives, and traditions that were rehearsed and refined throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Unfortunately for later hunters, these efforts failed to maintain the supply of desirable game. However, this conflict did aid the articulation of a rich, varied, and abiding southern hunting culture.

Hunting played a critical role in the development of southern communities for thousands of years before the arrival of the first Europeans. Every major group of Indians in the southeastern portion of America relied upon hunting as an essential source of provisions, clothing, tools, and trade goods. Like the Europeans and Africans who began settling their territory in the early seventeenth century, these Indians associated hunting with masculinity and power. While Indian women took primary responsibility for agriculture and housekeeping, Indian men in this region generally consigned themselves to hunting and warfare. This Indian division of labor alarmed some Europeans observers who believed that Indian men should have spent more time working in the fields.¹

This criticism reveals an important element of the dominant European understanding of hunting in the seventeenth century: it was a leisure activity reserved for members of the elite. Like many of the traditions, customs, and mores that Europeans brought to the New World, this idea became transformed by the conditions they discovered in North America. The abundance of land, the proliferation of property holding, an apparently bountiful supply of game, and the threat of hostile Indians transformed traditional European ideas about hunting during the colonial era. European laws and traditions customarily associated hunting with monarchs and aristocrats, but soon after their arrival in North America, many European settlers severed the link between hunting and class privilege. The democratizing influence of the New World accelerated this tendency, but necessity alone meant that hunting could no longer remain the preserve of the highborn or the wealthy. The ideal of the hunter-aristocrat quickly receded into dormancy.

Southerners hunted for a variety of reasons, but the prospect of fresh meat often provided reason enough. Few developed enough skill to support themselves on hunting alone, but the tenuousness and isolation of many colonial settlements meant that a diet diversified by hunting could be the difference between malnutrition and health. Indians initially supplied settlers with most of their game, but as Europeans and Africans adapted to life in North America, some of them became capable hunters and trappers as well.² Settlers, like Indians, valued wild animals both for their meat and for their hides and furs, which they could either trade or cure for use in their own households. In the South deer provided the most important source of hides, and by the mid-eighteenth century the deerskin trade had become a substantial component of the southern export economy. Meat and skin provided the most marketable commodities of the hunt, but many settlers found a variety of uses for the other parts of the animals they killed. Animal fat provided the raw material for a number of products, including shortening, candles, lye, and grease. Settlers also found uses for feathers, as pillow stuffing or writing quills; brains, as a tanning agent; and tripe, as food for hogs and dogs.³

While these prospects drew settlers into the field, others began hunting to protect their farming interests. The depredations of various predators (like wolves and pumas), which developed a taste for European livestock, and the constant raids of animals (like squirrels and crows), which ate produce and grain, encouraged coordinated eradication programs. Some communities managed these efforts themselves, but many colonies provided hunters with further incentive by passing bounty laws that offered rewards for the scalps and heads of various undesirable species.⁴

Because hunting played a more central role in the life and economies of the colonies than it had in the Old World, European settlers modified the common law to fit their situation. When Virginia passed the first southern game law in 1632, it swept away English restrictions regarding wealth and landownership by affirming the right of Virginians to hunt on common land. The House of Burgesses enumerated a number of reasons to justify this unprecedented step. It is thought convenient, its members declared, that any man be permitted to kill deare or other wild beasts or fowle in the common woods, forests, or rivers in regard that thereby the inhabitants may be trained in the use of theire armes, the Indians kept from our plantations, and the wolves and other vermine destroyed. Subsequent colonial laws attempted to impose some restrictions on this unfettered freedom by recognizing landowner sovereignty over posted land. The House of Burgesses, however, eventually opened the vast, uncultivated expanse of Virginia in 1643 by verifying the right of Virginians to hunt on any land not planted or seated though taken up.⁵

Encouraged by fairly liberal hunting laws and the marketability of meat and skins, Indian, European, and African hunters quickly depleted game around most European settlements. By the early eighteenth century, a few observers became concerned about the depletion of various species of game, particularly deer. Some of them blamed the Indians, many of whom now carried guns. Increasingly dependent on European goods, Indians killed massive amounts of game to exchange with white settlers. Naturalist Mark Catesby observed Indian hunters firsthand when he traveled through Virginia and Carolina from 1712 to 1722. He believed that the use of guns has enabled them to slaughter far greater number of deer and other animals than they did with their primitive bows and arrows. This destruction of deer and other animals being chiefly for the sake of their skins, a small part of the venison they kill suffices them; the remainder is left to rot, or becomes a prey to the wolves, panthers, and other voracious beasts.⁶ Philadelphia naturalist William Bartram observed a similar dynamic when he traveled through the Deep South in the early 1770s. The Indians he encountered waged eternal war against deer and bear, to procure food and clothing, and other necessaries and conveniences. Unlike Catesby, he saw the Indians in a sympathetic light and attributed their excesses to the pernicious influence of the white people who dazzled their senses with foreign superfluities.⁷

Other observers blamed game depletion on poor white hunters living in sparsely settled game-rich areas along the margins of agricultural settlement. These frontiersmen were already being idealized by some inhabitants of more densely populated areas for their apparent toughness, familiarity with firearms, and knowledge of woodcraft, which made them an excellent vanguard for the expansion of settlement. Joseph Doddridge, an Episcopalian organizer who traveled throughout northwestern Virginia and the upper Ohio Valley from 1763 to 1783, applauded frontiersmen because they were inured to hardihood, bravery and labor from their early youth. He gushed, They sustained with manly fortitude, the fatigue of the chase, the campaign and scout, and with strong arms ‘turned the wilderness into fruitful fields’ and have left to their descendants the rich inheritance of an immense empire blessed with peace and wealth.⁸

Although most frontier settlers devoted themselves to agricultural pursuits and emigrated in family, ethnic, and religious groups, Doddridge's depiction of the hardy frontiersman as the tamer of the wilderness became a popular image of frontier development. Frontiersmen were commonly thought of as the first crucial step in an irreversible continuum of economic development, yet enthusiasm for the skills and lifestyle of the frontiersman quickly faded as soon as an area they occupied became more densely populated.⁹ In an agricultural milieu frontiersmen became annoying, and potentially disruptive, anachronisms. Many farmers in newly settled areas considered hunting a possible source of supplementary provisions and an acceptable form of amusement and recreation, but at a certain point in the economic development of the area, farmers agreed, hunting became an unfit vocation. In doing so, they made an increasingly sharp distinction between farmers who occasionally hunted (themselves) and hunters who occasionally farmed