Performance Enhancement and Control of Photovoltaic Systems

Performance Enhancement and Control of Photovoltaic Systems brings together the latest advances in photovoltaic control and integration, with various embedded technologies applied to stand alone and grid connected systems, in normal and abnormal operating conditions, with new approaches intended to overcome a number of critical limitations in using PV technology.

The book begins by introducing modern photovoltaic (PV) systems, system integration, materials, and thermodynamic analysis for improved performance, before examining applications in industrial processes, artificial neural network technology, and economic analysis of PV systems. In-depth chapters then demonstrate the use of advanced control and optimization techniques, covering the use of new embedded technologies, through different applications such as MPPT controllers, solar trackers, cleaning systems, cooling systems, and monitoring systems. Applications of photovoltaic energy systems in distributed generation, microgrid, and smart grid systems will be considered.

This book is of interest to all those with an interest in photovoltaics, control, embedded systems, and renewable energy, including researchers, scientists, advanced students, engineers, R&D professionals, and other industry personnel.

• Presents the latest materials and thermodynamic analysis techniques for improved PV performance
• Provides detailed descriptions and analyses of embedded systems and digital technologies
• Explores industrial applications that are supported by case studies and practical examples

• Language: English
• Publisher: Elsevier Science
• Release date: Apr 30, 2024
• ISBN: 9780443133930

Book preview

Preface

Saad Motahhir and Mamdouh El Haj Assad

The use of solar energy, especially photovoltaic (PV), is expanding across industries and other economic sectors, and it is growing year over year. Even so, there is a dearth of information on this industry, in part because so few colleges and universities offer degrees in this field. Furthermore, there is little knowledge on the subject, and much of solar energy technology is still in its infancy.

This requirement is addressed in the Performance Enhancement and Control of Photovoltaic Systems book by offering a deeper comprehension of the possibilities and key difficulties in this developing area. Finding appropriate references that condense or summarize the PV technology as well as the most pertinent PV materials and tools for their characterization can be difficult for students, researchers, and engineers who are interested in PV technology.

In addition to providing information on PV energy systems, this book also discusses ways to assess PV performance using thermodynamics and models of PV modules. Moreover, this book discusses in detail the parameters affecting the performance of PV systems such as soiling, dust removal, and climate conditions.

The content in the book is arranged to give students, engineers, and researchers interested in PV systems an easily accessible and comprehensive source of information. Thus the book offers readers a thorough overview of the fundamental ideas and current state of the art of the many aspects of PV systems, as well as what is required to advance the study of PV technology and improve the efficiency of PV systems. For these systems to be optimized, a thorough analysis, including all the parameters affecting the PV performance, is discussed, and modeling of PV modules under shading and different climate conditions is also considered.

The book’s primary goal is to propose the design concepts for PV systems as well as their control techniques. This book contains information on the use of PV systems for freshwater production, PV soiling loss, electrical models of PV modules, digital metasurfaces as a new technology for enhancing PV performance, optimization algorithms to estimate PV cell circuit parameters, maximum power point tracking technique, Internet of things for PV applications, control of electric ships powered by PV, and challenges of modern PV systems under large-scale forms.

1

Current challenges in nanomaterials for photovoltaics: 2D graphene layers and double perovskites

A. Abbassi¹, A. Razouk², B. Manaut¹ and Felicia Iacomi³,    ¹Laboratory of Research in Physics and Engineering Sciences, Sultan Moulay Slimane University, Polydisciplinary Faculty, Beni Mellal, Morocco,    ²LGEM, FST, Sultan Moulay Slimane University, Beni-Mellal, Morocco,    ³Faculty of Physics, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, Iasi, Romania

Abstract

In this chapter, we give a general overview of the use of some new nanomaterials in solar applications. We will treat a double perovskite BaSrMgWO6 and the tri/bi-layers of graphene. The study is based on the investigation of the optoelectronic properties of these structures using the full potential-linearized augmented plane wave (FP-LAPW) method which is implemented in the WIEN2K package. The results found are in agreement with the experimental ones. This new generation of materials is an efficient candidate in the next years to convert energy as window layers in solar cell electrodes and will replace the classical manufacturing of these applications by improving the yield production for excellent energy conversions.

Keywords

Solar applications; ab initio; DFT; optical properties

1.1 Introduction

Double perovskites with a general formula A2B′B″O6/A′A″B′B″O6 represent a large family of compounds, which until now have been extensively studied due to their interesting properties and applications in microelectronic circuits, as active photocatalytic material, thin film substrate, solid oxide fuel cell electrolytes, contactless potentiometer, and recently in spintronic devices (Abbassi et al., 2023; Mitchel, 2000; Tejuca & Fierro, 1993; Westerburg et al., 2002; Kobayashi et al., 1999; Kobayashi et al., 1998). In the chemical formula A2B′B″O6/A′A″B′B″O6, A/A′/A″ are 12-fold coordinated alkaline earth metal ions like barium, strontium, calcium, or lanthanide while B′/B″ are sixfold coordinated transition metal ions or light alkaline earth ions like magnesium. It has been shown that the structure of double perovskite can be not only cubic but also tetragonal, orthorhombic, and monoclinic (Barnes et al., 2006). Among a large number of double perovskites, the Ba2MgWO6 crystal was also examined, mainly experimentally. Ba2MgWO6 has shown great potential as a ceramic component for temperature sensors, for example, in petroleum wells (Salgado & Filho, 2008). This ceramic was produced by a solid-state reaction process and sintered at different sintering conditions (Khalyavin et al., 2003; Rangel de Aguiar et al., 2005). Raman spectroscopy of Ba2MgWO6 and some other perovskites have been performed by (Hardcastle & Wachs, 1995).

Despite the recent progress in the physics of the double perovskites, there is always an open debate on adequate theoretical modeling. In particular, the details of the interplay between structural, electronic, and magnetic degrees of freedom in the double perovskites are not yet clearly understood. As far as we are concerned, electronic and optical properties of mixed alkaline earth tungstate double perovskites BaSrMgWO6 have not been reported. In continuation with these types of ceramics (Ezzahi et al., 2011), an attempt is made to synthesize a double perovskite with the general formula BaSrMgWO6.

In this chapter, the BaSrMgWO6 compound was investigated in order to understand its behaviors in terms of electrical and optical properties by using first-principle calculation based on the density function theory.

The revolutionary character of graphene lies mainly in its two dimensionality. Physically, it is a layer of single carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal pattern that visually resembles a honeycomb. Graphene is therefore an allotrope of carbon. The C–C bond length is equal to 1.42 Å similar to graphite. The unit cell is given by a=2.4612 Å and b=2.4612 Å (Latham et al., 2015). In this study, the calculation was made with the vacuum layer c=3.5 Å that was taken along the normal to graphene layer in order to ignore the effect of interaction between layers. The electronic, optical, thermal, and mechanical properties of graphene have opened the opportunity to many applications, which will develop dynamically in the coming decades. Already today, graphene is considered the best material instead of silicon in the electronic field. This transparent and flexible conductor can be used to manufacture photovoltaic cells, as well as LED lights. It also greatly increases the frequency of electromagnetic signals, allowing the production of faster transistors. Graphene sensors are also attracting considerable interest. We will use the ab initio method to study the optoelectronic properties of bilayers and trilayers of these systems in order to explain the interaction of radiation with these materials and to check the ability to use these layers as window layers in solar cells.

1.2 Method and calculation

In order to investigate deeply the optoelectronic properties of these materials, we proceed to calculate the band structure, total/partial DOS, and optical properties (absorption and transparency parameters) of BaSrMgWO6 and graphene Bi and trilayers within a self-consistent scheme by solving the Kohn-Sham equation based on the first principles using DFT with the local density approximation (LDA), generalized gradient approximation (GGA) method, and the exchange–correlation function realized by Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhof (PBE) implemented in the WIEN2K package (Blaha & Schwarz, 2006); the spin polarization has been taken into account. We take the energy cutoff of −8.0 Ryd to describe the wave functions in the interstitial region for the LAPW calculation. The integrals over the Brillouin zone are performed up to 400 k-points in the irreducible Brillouin zone (IBZ). The self-consistent calculations are considered to converge when the total energy of the system is stable within 10−5 Ryd.

1.3 Result and discussion

1.3.1 Electronic properties of double perovskite system

In order to have more information about the electronic structure and to determine the origin of the charge transfer that is responsible for the band gap value that is observed for this compound, we have calculated the total and partial DOS. Fig. 1.1 presents the results of the total (DOS) calculations in the BaSrMgWO6 compound as well as the partial DOS related to Ba, Sr, Mg, W, and O.

Figure 1.1 Total and partial density of state of BaSrMgWO6.

From this figure, the valence band (VB) of such a compound is composed of two regions. The first region, located between −5 and 0 eV, corresponds to the hybridization of s, p states of Mg, d of W, and s, p of oxygen. The second region, ranging from −20 to −15 eV, corresponds to the hybridization between p-states of Sr and s-states of oxygen. The figure also demonstrates that the p-states of Ba contribute to the TDOS by the occurrence of a peak that appears at −10 eV. The conduction band (CB) is composed of d-states of Ba and Sr, s, p-states of Mg, d of W, and finally p of oxygen. Moreover, the corresponding maximum and minimum energy levels of the VB and the CB are 0 eV and 3.35 eV, respectively. At 0 eV, there is contribution of only p-state of oxygen, and at 3.35 eV, contribution of only d-state of W. This result confirms the explanation of the band gap origin suggested by (Blasse & Corsmit, 1973). We have determined the band structure of the BaSrMgWO6 compound using the DFT method. The obtained results, as presented in Fig. 1.2, show that the bottom of the conduction band and the top of the valence band are at the same point X. This indicates that the gap of our compound BaSrMgWO6 is direct. The obtained values of the band gap depend on the type of approximation used. Indeed, we found that the gap value is equal to 3.22 eV and 3.35 eV for LDA and GGA, respectively (see Table 1.1).

Figure 1.2 Band structure of BaSrMgWO6.

Table 1.1

These results demonstrate that the value obtained by GGA approximation is closer to the experimental one than those obtained by LDA. Indeed, it is known that the latter approximation underestimates the band gap value. This fact can be explained by the incorrect interpretation of Kohn-Sham eigenvalues, associated with the exchange and correlation in LDA functional. It is known that the optical band gap gives the accurate value of band energy. For this reason, we will calculate the absorption coefficient in order to estimate with more accuracy the gap value, using the GGA approximation.

1.3.2 Electronic properties of graphene layers

The band structure of the graphene bilayer (Fig. 1.3) shows a direct aspect of the gap obtained; the valence and conduction bands constitute intense internal bands from −2 eV to −6 eV and from 1.5 eV up to 6 eV, respectively. These bands are mainly due to the s and p orbitals of carbon; this is also observed in the calculation made for the total density.

Figure 1.3 TDOS and band structure of graphene bilayer.

By changing the distance d (Table 1.2) between layers that is chosen so as to avoid the effects of interactions between layers, gap openings are found. With the increase in distance d, the gap also increases; this is mainly due to the weak mutual interaction between the two layers. The effect of surface 1 is assumed to be weak on surface 2 and vice versa. The graphene trilayer was carried out with a fixed distance d, which corresponds to the stability of the system; the figure below gives the variation of the energy according to the distance d taken. The stability that gives a minimum energy is obtained for d=3.5 Å (Fig. 1.4).

Table 1.2

Figure 1.4 Optimization of distance d between layers.

The graphene trilayer after calculation shows the presence of several energy levels in both bands, with intense intrabands consisting essentially of s and p of carbon. A direct gap is observed with the value 0.6 eV. These intense internal bands are due to the grouping of three layers. Even with a weak interaction, the energies are added to make these internal bands appear (Fig. 1.5).

Figure 1.5 TDOS and band structure of graphene trilayer.

1.3.3 Optical properties of double perovskites

In order to calculate an accurate value of the optical band gap of our material, we proceed to study the optical absorption. The optical band gap can be deduced using the following equation (Abbassi et al., 2015):

Equation

It is noted that m is a constant that equals 2 for a direct gap and ½ for an indirect gap; A is a constant depending on the transition probability. The plot Equation versus the incident radiation leads us to extract the band gap energies by the linear extrapolation of the coefficient of absorption α to zero. Based on the band structure of BaSrMgWO6, we take m equal to 2 in order to present Equation in terms of energy (hν) (see Fig. 1.6). The absorption coefficient was obtained using the ratio of αd=ln(1/T), where d is the optical path traveled by electromagnetic radiation and T is the stand for transmittance. The value obtained is precise and in agreement with the experimental results (Fig. 1.6).

Figure 1.6 Optical band gap of BaSrMgWO6.

From Fig. 1.7, we can observe a stable behavior of absorbance and can notice that there is high absorption in the ultraviolet region and low absorption in the visible and infrared regions. Such low absorption is due to the large band gap of such material.

Figure 1.7 Absorption spectra versus wavelength for BaSrMgWO6.

Several computational and experimental investigations performed on bulk and 2D-BaSrMgWO6 prove a direct band-to-band transition with an Eg of 3.7 eV. Due to the transitions between bands and the excitonic aspect, an important absorption can appear when light penetrates the matter. In a recently published work (Punga et al., 2022), we have elaborated the thin films of BaSrMgWO6 with different temperatures; this study allowed us to visualize the transmittance of this perovskite in 2D form. For two temperatures, we have estimated after measurement that the value of the transparency is around 90% for a crystallization of 850°C (Fig. 1.8).

Figure 1.8 Transmittance spectra versus wavelength of 2D-BaSrMgWO6 thin films for different annealing processes.

1.3.4 Optical properties of 2D graphene

The graphene bilayer presents an anisotropy with respect to the dispersion of light in the material; the 2D structure of the graphene bilayer is a structure that has no privileged directions for the propagation of light radiation. The zz direction in these variations presents a good behavior; the absorption in zz is almost null in visible light and starts after the excitation of 8 eV. This is proven by the variation of the transmittance whose average is estimated at more than 97%. The same behavior is observed for the trilayer; a negligible decrease in transmittance is presented by this structure compared to the bilayer. The absorption is also very low in visible light. These results obtained for the bulk/2D of double perovskite BaSrMgWO6 and the 2D of graphene bi- and trilayers constitute an important step toward the establishment of a new generation of solar electrodes based on transparent nanomaterials, which also have significant conductivity (Fig. 1.9).

Figure 1.9 Transmittance curves of bi- and trilayers of graphene.

1.4 Conclusion

In this study, we treated two categories of nanomaterials that can be considered a real challenge in the manufacturing technologies of solar cells. We have studied the optoelectronic properties of the following forms: bulk/2D of double perovskite BaSrMgWO6 and graphene bilayer and trilayer. The results obtained present an important transmittance for these nanomaterials, which is around 97%. These materials can be used as transparent coatings and surfaces in solar electrode applications.

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2

A thorough review of PV performance, influencing factors, and mitigation strategies; advancements in solar PV systems

Yashar Aryanfar¹, Mamdouh El Haj Assad², Jorge Luis García Alcaraz³, Julio Blanco Fernandez⁴, José Roberto Díaz-Reza¹, Shabbir Ahmad⁵, ⁶, Raha Ranaei⁷ and Ali Keçebaş⁸,    ¹Department of Electric Engineering and Computation, Autonomous University of Ciudad Juárez, Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México,    ²Department of Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates,    ³Department of Industrial Engineering and Manufacturing, Autonomous University of Ciudad Juárez, Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México,    ⁴Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of La Rioja, Logroño, La Rioja, Spain,    ⁵Institute of Geophysics and Geomatics, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, P.R. China,    ⁶Department of Basic Sciences and Humanities, Muhammad Nawaz Sharif University of Engineering and Technology, Multan, Pakistan,    ⁷Department of Architecture Engineering, Arak Branch, Islamic Azad University, Arak, Iran,    ⁸Department of Energy Systems Engineering, Technology Faculty, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University, Muğla, Turkey

Abstract

However, predicting how much electricity photovoltaic (PV) plants will produce is a challenge. PV power plants, which use solar energy to create electricity on a huge scale, have become a trend and a new choice embraced by many countries. This examination of current PV power plants offers recommendations for more exact designs and performance projections of further PV technologies in the future. Some authors have reviewed studies on PV power systems in the literature. However, those reviews tend to be narrower in their focus. This study will analyze recent studies on PV power systems in the literature released between 2012 and 2022 from a more comprehensive standpoint. Three major sections make up the current study. First, a study of the performance of PV power plants is offered by considering various performance parameters created by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC 61724-1). Reference yield, final yield, performance ratio, capacity utilization factor, and system efficiency are some of these parameters. Second, many identifying characteristics that have been researched in earlier studies and have an impact on PV performance were considered. Some of these variables are solar irradiation, PV technology type, ambient temperature, cell temperature, tilt angle, dust buildup, and shading effect. Thirdly, various strategies were used and recommended to mitigate the effects of these influencing elements and improve the performance effectiveness of the PV power system. While relying on passive approaches for routine operations, a hybrid cooling and cleaning system can apply active techniques to increase efficiency at high sun irradiance and ambient temperatures. This thorough and critical analysis identifies the difficulties and suggested solutions when using solar technologies for researchers, designers, and investors working on PV power systems.

Keywords

Solar PV; performance ratio; reference yield; capacity utilization factor; final yield; grid-tied solar system; tilt angle; performance comparison

2.1 Introduction

Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems have made significant advancements in recent years, revolutionizing how we harness solar energy. These advancements have increased efficiency, affordability, and scalability, making solar PV systems a viable and sustainable alternative to traditional energy sources. One of the significant advances in solar PV systems is improving solar cell efficiency. Traditional solar cells have an average efficiency of around 15–20, meaning they can convert only a fraction of the sunlight they receive into electricity. However, recent breakthroughs in solar cell technologies have pushed efficiencies well beyond 20%. For example, silicon-based heterojunction solar cells have achieved efficiencies exceeding 26, while perovskite-based solar cells have demonstrated efficiencies above 25%. These higher efficiency solar cells enable more electricity generation from the same amount of sunlight, thereby increasing the overall energy output of solar PV systems. Solar panels, an inverter, AC and DC cables, a backup power source, a supply grid, and a monitoring system are the critical elements of a PV system. Solar radiation is captured by the solar panels, transforming it into DC electrical power (Agrawal et al., 2022). DC power is transformed into AC electricity and supplied to the load by the inverter. When solar energy is insufficient or there is no backup power source, excess solar energy is injected into the grid and used to generate electricity. The monitoring system displays the PV system’s status in real time (Høiaas et al., 2022). Fig. 2.1 depicts the basic schematic layout of a PV system.

Figure 2.1 Schematic of a photovoltaic facility ( Ahmed et al., 2021).

Another significant advancement in solar PV systems is the development of thin-film solar cells. Thin-film solar cells are made using fragile layers of semiconductor materials that can be deposited on flexible substrates such as plastic or metal. This flexibility allows for integrating solar cells into various applications, including building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV solar roof tiles) and solar-powered clothing. Thin-film solar cells are also lightweight and less expensive to produce compared to traditional silicon-based solar cells.

Furthermore, the cost of solar PV systems has been steadily declining. The development of new manufacturing processes and economies of scale have significantly reduced the production costs of solar panels over the years. As a result, the cost of solar PV systems has become increasingly competitive with fossil fuel-based electricity generation. Additionally, advancements in solar cell efficiency have contributed to maximizing energy output, making solar PV systems more cost-effective and attractive for residential, commercial, and utility-scale applications. Integrating storage solutions such as batteries with solar PV systems has also significantly improved. Energy storage allows for capturing and storing excess solar energy during peak production periods, which can be utilized when sunlight is limited, such as nighttime or cloudy days. Incorporating energy storage into solar PV systems enables greater self-consumption of solar energy, reducing reliance on the grid and providing reliable power supply during grid outages. Fig. 2.2 displays the installed PV plant capacity globally. In 2022, PV systems of 240 GWdc were installed worldwide. Analysts predict yearly global PV installations will rise: 372 GWdc in 2024, 418 GWdc in 2025, and 458 GWdc in 2026. Analysts who made worldwide estimations last year boosted those predictions this year (34%–38% for projections for 2025, for example). Over the indicated period, nearly 70% of all PV installations worldwide were made in China, Europe, the United States, and India (Feldman et al.,