Foundations of Writing for University Study

By David Fonteyn

This textbook explains the fundamentals of effective academic writing for university studies across multiple genres and formats. It is intended for students who are either in the early stages of their university studies, or are preparing to enter a university degree. 

One of the ways this textbook differs from other textbooks on academic writing is its focus on the organisation of the English sentence through Theme and Rheme. The Theme is what the sentence is about, while the Rheme is what is being said about the Theme. In the English clause, the Theme is at the beginning and the Rheme follows. 

At the same time as the English clause is divided into Theme and Rheme, the clause can be understood as a unit of information where New information is provided to Given information. One of the central aims of the textbook is to increase awareness of the flow of Given and New information from sentence to sentence, and for students to have greater ability in its organisation. Moreover, New information is formally organised through prosody, or rhythm and intonation patterns. This approach takes account of English rhythms, intonation and stress patterns that accompany sentences and how this relates to writing sentences.

Through the Theme/Rheme and Given/New approach, combined with an understanding of Genre, this book aims to both increase awareness of these aspects of the English sentence and explore how this aspect of English facilitates clearer and more effective writing.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Austin Macauley Publishers
• Release date: Jun 21, 2024
• ISBN: 9781035828050

David Fonteyn

David Fonteyn has taught essay writing and other forms of academic writing for university studies for over ten years.He has taught essay writing at undergraduate level, as well as on university preparation courses for domestic Australian students doing Foundation Studies and diploma courses as they transition into university degrees. David has also taught essay writing for international students preparing to study in Australia. He holds a PhD in Australian Literature, a Master’s degree in Education (TESOL), and an Honors degree majoring in English (Literature and Linguistics).

Book preview

Preface

This textbook explains the fundamentals of writing effective academic English across multiple genres and formats. It is intended for students who are either in the early stages of their studies at university, or are preparing to enter a university degree. It focuses on writing clear and coherent sentences, including grammar, clause and sentence structure, punctuation, and style.

It also highlights the methods for producing clear and easy-to-read paragraphs: audience, organisation, coherence, and cohesion. Critical thinking and the ability to write strong arguments are central skills explored throughout the book. Practice activities are provided as each aspect of effective academic writing is studied.

One of the ways this textbook differs from other textbooks on academic writing is its focus on the organisation of the English sentence. The approach of the book in understanding and explaining this organisation is derived from the work of Michael Halliday and the school of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). However, it should be noted that to a large extent, rather than using SFL terminology, the book utilises common traditional terminology and grammar throughout.

The approach is based on the understanding of a clause as organised into two parts: what is called Theme and Rheme. The Theme of a clause could be understood as what that clause is about. The Rheme is what is being said about the Theme. In the English clause, the Theme is at the beginning and the Rheme follows. Note that the concepts of Theme and Rheme emerged from the traditional understanding of the clause as divided into Subject and Predicate, which dates back many centuries.

The reason for adopting Halliday’s terminology (Halliday takes it from the Prague School of Linguistics) is that his concept of Theme is able to capture a greater complexity to what is thematic in the clause (that is, what it is about) than the more traditional term of Subject. Instead, throughout the book, the term Subject is reserved for the grammatical part of the clause that agrees with the verb, rather than what the clause is about (its Theme).

It may be particularly helpful for students who are non-native English speakers to develop this understanding of the English clause, as clause and sentence structure may be very different in their native language. As well, many languages have rather different ways of signalling what is thematic in the clause than the way it is done in English.

Furthermore, the development of the Theme, as clauses and sentences build to construct a paragraph, has a significant effect on the organisation, readability, and style of the paragraph. Taking control of the Theme of the clause and sentence, and its development through the paragraph, is an important beginning to effective writing.

At the same time as the English clause is divided into Theme and Rheme, the clause can be understood as a unit of information where New information is provided to Given information. While there is no grammatical or syntactic organisation to the structure of Given/New in a clause, there are cultural and textual expectations that the writer should be aware of.

For example, all things being equal, New information is expected at the end of the clause, in the Rheme. The organisation and flow of information from Given to New is one of the ways by which writing may be either easy or difficult to understand and follow. One of the central aims of the textbook is to increase awareness of the flow of Given and New information from sentence to sentence, and for students to have greater ability in its organisation.

It should also be understood that New information is formally organised through prosody, or rhythm and intonation patterns. English, like all languages, has a particular rhythmic pattern to it, and developing an awareness of the rhythms of English as well as the type of intonation and stress that accompanies sentences can lead to more control over the construction of the sentence and paragraph. This book aims to both increase awareness of these aspects of the English sentence and explore how this aspect of English facilitates clearer and more effective writing.

For students from non-English speaking backgrounds developing their ability to write in English, the approach presented in this textbook is especially useful as it provides a structure at the sentence and clause level in which to organise thoughts and ideas. Typically, writing instruction textbooks (both for EAL and native speaker students) provide structure at the Genre level through the use of models and an analysis of the schematic structure of these models.

This book also utilises this Genre approach. However, it is believed that by providing a structure at the clause and sentence level, as well as at the Genre level, students may be more able to readily construct effective sentences from the ideas they have. This frees up the model to function according to its intended purpose: to present an example of the type of information that is required at different stages of the essay and within the paragraphs.

For native English-speaking students, the Theme/Rheme and Given/New approach, combined with an understanding of Genre, can provide greater awareness and control of the tools of the written language to construct effective, clear, and concise writing.

Chapter One

Introduction to Academic Writing

There are a large number of writing instruction books that provide advice and guidance on what to do and what not to do, on what constitutes good writing and what does not. In this book, there may be times when such advice is also given; however, it is the aim of the book to provide students with a deeper understanding of the principles and expectations of academic writing, and by doing this, empower the student to judge for themselves what advice to accept and what to leave behind.

Moreover, the principles and methodology adopted here aim to foster and support confidence in students’ development of their own voice, and ability to express that voice.

Writing is a Process

All writing, be it academic, casual, professional, or creative, is a process. It involves stages such as researching, note-taking, planning, writing, editing, re-editing, and proofreading. Sometimes, these stages may be unconscious or barely conscious; they may occur instantaneously and without effort; at other times, significant conscious effort is involved in each stage.

The approach taken in this textbook attempts to bring to consciousness some of the processes involved. At the same time, it can also be understood as a powerful tool for editing and re-editing.

Writing is a Form of Communication

Not only is writing a process, it is also a form of communication. The written text operates within a wider context of interaction between other writers and their readers. That is, when writing an academic text, the writer is inserting their own text into an existing field of debate or ‘dialogue’ amongst other writers and readers about a certain topic or issue within an academic discipline. This ‘dialogue’ is often termed dialectic, and may involve the use of a Counterargument and Rebuttal.

It may also manifest in the organisation of the sentence or the text; for example, in what information is taken as Given, to which New information is then added. Thus, in order to write effectively, the writer needs to understand the debate and be able to engage dialectically in it. This involves research.

Not only is it necessary to gain knowledge on a topic or issue, but it is also required to understand and use the terminology within the discipline. Furthermore, words and terminology are governed by discourses, which provide connotation, and it is required to understand these connotations. Such connotation could include appropriate style, political meanings, connection to a certain school of thought within a discipline, or cultural significance.

Understanding and being able to use correctly the discourses operating around an issue is a significant element in academic writing.

Writing is Sensitive to Audience

As should be apparent by now, writing as an act of communication, is sensitive to audience. All writing has an intended or imagined reader (whether conscious or unconscious) and the writer of an effective academic text must consider the characteristics of their intended reader. They must consider what is being taken for granted about the reader’s knowledge and stance on the topic.

A central question that a writer must consider throughout their writing is whether the reader requires explanation of certain ideas or terms. Thus, a fundamental aspect of the process of writing is the question around what can be taken as Given information, and what constitutes significant, that is, useful, New information. This has consequences at the levels of vocabulary choice, clause organisation and its grammatical structure, paragraph organisation, and overall text organisation.

Purpose

All writing is done for a purpose, and the purpose has a significant effect on the structure and organisation of the writing, as well as the appropriate vocabulary and grammar required. Examples of purpose in academic writing include: to argue a position, to discuss an issue, to analyse a problem, to conduct a literature review, to write a data commentary, to write a report such as a technical or lab report, or a research report. In general, the manifestation of purpose in a text’s structure is through Genre.

Each purpose has an expected Genre that provides a schematic structure for the text. These Genres should be understood as providing a cultural means by which to express the ideas that the writer intends. As such, it is important to understand that the structure of the Genre is there to enable clarity for the reader. Generic structure is not a straitjacket that the writing is there to conform to; instead, the Genre is a means to enable the writing to be clear and meaningful for a given situation and purpose, and within a specific culture. Understanding the reasons for the structure can provide freedom to engage creatively with the Genre, and as the writer develops their voice and confidence, they may rely less on stringently following generic structures. Effective writing is often loosely held together by Genre, rather than strictly conforming to a pattern or structure.

Paragraph Organisation

In the epigraph to this book, I quote from a famous passage in The Catcher in the Rye, where Holden Caulfield presents a discourse on style, celebrating a rambling digressive style, over one that is constrained by the forces of organisation and clarity such as coherence and planning. He makes it sound appealing, and of course he is talking more about speech rather than writing, let alone academic writing.

It may be successful for conversation and the free flow of ideas, story-telling, and banter; it may also be successful for narrative writing, as Salinger’s wonderful novel is effectively based around this rambling way of telling a tale. However, this type of advice is the opposite to what is required for clear and easy to read paragraphs in an academic context. Instead, the advice from his hated teacher, Mr Vinson, is the appropriate one: to unify and simplify.

Writing is a discipline and it takes thoughtful planning, organisation, and careful editing and rewriting to shape it into a finished product. This is one (of many) important difference between a written style of English and spoken forms—it is polished and reworked rather than impromptu and spontaneous.

Developing an understanding of the differences between written and spoken English is key to effective academic writing, as often what we write comes from an internal voice in our heads at the time, which is often in spoken styles rather than written forms. It will be important, in the redrafting and editing stages, to step back and appraise the writing in terms of its appropriateness for the context of a university assignment. In order to do that effectively, it is required to understand the expectations.

There is an expectation from the reader as to the structure of academic paragraphs. Well organised paragraphs increase readability and clarity, making the message of the text easier to comprehend and grasp. Academic paragraphs are organised differently from narrative style paragraphs or paragraphs in more informal writing such as letters, emails or comments on social media.

While it is common in narrative or informal writing to build up to the point or main idea, which is revealed at the end, thereby building interest and suspense, in academic writing, the point is stated clearly up front. It is important that the reader is made aware of the point from the beginning, and the purpose of the rest of the paragraph is to explain or develop the point or idea, thereby validating it. Thus, academic paragraphs are organised according to levels of generality.

A second important factor to consider in paragraph organisation is the logic that underlies the order of information. Deciding on order can be done unconsciously and at random, or a logical principle can be used in order to help guide the choices required. For example, one common logical principle is most important to least important. Other elements of paragraph organisation include Cohesion and Coherence.

Cohesion is how the different parts of the paragraph relate to each other. This includes the flow of information from Given to New. Coherence involves what the paragraph is about, and relates to the paragraph having only one topic, or what is known as Unity. As such, it affects the development of the Theme of the sentences. These organisational principles will be explored briefly in turn.

Academic paragraphs are structured from general to specific information. This schema operates on a continuum, utilising different degrees of generality, or specificity. The topic of the paragraph, and what is being said about the topic (called the controlling idea) is stated clearly in what is called the Topic Sentence. This is commonly the first sentence of the paragraph. The reader should be told up front what the paragraph as a whole is about.

The idea is then either explained or developed, or divided into points. Each point is stated first, and then elaborated on, before moving to the next point. Points may themselves be divided into sub-points. The development of an idea, or point, may include evidence, examples, or quotations from authoritative sources. These types of elaboration are often further explained or commented on as to their significance within the point being made. The paragraph is commonly ended with a Concluding Sentence, which returns to a higher level of generality. There are a number of strategies to constructing a Concluding Sentence, which are explored in the textbook; however, it is common to either restate the overall idea of the paragraph, or to provide a transition to the following paragraph’s overall idea.

Effective academic paragraphs require some principle guiding the order of information. That principle should also be made clear to the reader. One principle relates to the relative importance of the information. It is common to begin with the most important point; however, ending with this is also a popular strategy. The writer needs to consider the relative importance of each idea and organise the paragraph accordingly.

Another example of a logical ordering principle is chronology. This may be useful for describing processes. Similarly, spatial organisation could be a logical principle for descriptive writing. Irrespective of the principle itself, the writer should consider an underlying logic to the order of ideas presented in the paragraph.

Another organising principle of the paragraph is cohesion. Cohesion can be understood as the ‘glue’ between the sentences; that is, how the sentences hold together as a paragraph. If the sentences are envisaged as units of information, then cohesion relates to the way the information flows through the paragraph. New information that has not been adequately introduced represents a break in cohesion.

There are a number of ways that information is organised in a cohesive manner. Firstly, cohesive markers make clear to the reader the purpose of the information presented. These include words and phrases such as: for example, firstly, secondly, to begin, thus, in conclusion, as a result, and many others. These markers show the relationship between information.

Secondly, controlling the organisation of the clause and sentence structure as to what information is placed at the beginning and at the end plays a significant role in the cohesion of the paragraph. In general, New information is put at the end of the clause; however, putting it at the beginning can be a useful strategy as it highlights the significance of the information. Regardless, the way information flows from sentence to sentence throughout the paragraph is an important factor to consider in the organisation of the paragraph.

Other cohesive elements include reference words such as pronouns and determiners. These build links to previous (or following) information in the paragraph or information beyond the paragraph. Similarly, repetition and other types of lexical chains such as synonyms or antonyms build cohesion in the paragraph. Cohesion, then, can be largely understood as the relationship between Given and New information, and how it flows through the paragraph.

Finally, it is important to consider coherence and its effect on paragraph organisation. Coherence can be understood as unity of topic or idea for the paragraph. Each paragraph should only be about one idea, which is stated in the Topic Sentence. The themes and rhemes, then, of each clause and sentence, need to relate in some way to the overall idea of the paragraph.

Note, it is possible for a sentence to not be related to the idea of the paragraph; this is called an aside. However, an aside must be clearly signalled and its purpose made apparent; otherwise, it breaks coherence with the paragraph. There are numerous ways the theme or rheme of a clause can relate to the overall idea of the paragraph. However, it must be clear that there is a relationship in some way.

Thus, it can be useful to consider the organisation of the theme and rheme of each clause and sentence and their relationship to the overall unity of the paragraph.

Academic Style of Expression

An important expectation on academic texts is the style of the writing. There are a number of conventions that govern appropriate style; however, this can also be understood as a continuum, with a significant amount of leeway as to what could be considered acceptable, depending on the reader, the topic, the genre and other factors. Generally, the vocabulary should be at an appropriate level of formality.

Also, certain disciplines utilise specific terminology or technical jargon. While it may not be necessary to utilise this, such vocabulary provides a concise way of expressing ideas which can also show familiarity and understanding of the topic being written about. Typically, academic style of vocabulary is that which is concise, accurate, and appropriate to the discipline.

Similar to the appropriate choice of academic lexis is the use of academic phrases and the avoidance of non-academic phrases. Idiomatic language is generally considered informal in style. However, there are a number of idioms that are commonly used, such as on the other hand or on balance.

Secondly, it is less common to utilise phrasal verbs in academic writing. Phrasal verbs are generally considered informal and used widely in spoken English. As with idioms, there are exceptions that are more formal such as enter into or bring about. It is important for the writer to become familiar with the appropriate and inappropriate phrases and phrasal verbs for academic writing.

While vocabulary is one aspect if academic style, there are grammatical features that should be considered. For instance, it is common to utilise abstract nouns, especially in the expression of an action (whereas in spoken English and less formal writing, action is expressed in verb form). Instead, in academic writing, verbs tend to show connections between ideas; for example, relations of being or having, or cause and effect. Thus, it is common to have a lot of information in noun groups, joined together with relational verbs.

Contractions and abbreviations are also generally avoided; however, acronyms are possible when introduced correctly. Furthermore, academic writing, although dialectical, is not a written form of conversation (like for example posting on social media, or using chat). While there is an intended reader, there is no direct reader.

Thus, academic writing does not take the form of addressing directly an audience or reader. So, imperatives are generally not part of academic style, neither is the use of the second person pronoun, ‘you’. It is also rare to pose a question to the reader.

Sentence structure also features in an appropriate academic style of writing. The writer needs to consider carefully their use of simple sentences (one independent clause), compound sentences (two or more independent clauses), and complex sentences (one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses). Generally, an appropriate mix of these is required, with sentences as a rule not being ‘too long’, as increasing length increases difficulty of comprehension.

However, beyond this general rule of thumb, the different types of sentence structures themselves have meanings that should be understood, and effective academic writing involves the careful use of sentence structure in the appropriate manner.

Another aspect of academic style is tone. Tone relates to the attitude of the writer in relation to both the topic and the audience. While tone can be expressed through sound in spoken language, it also can be manifest in written language. For example, the type of vocabulary chosen has connotations of tone. In general, academic tone is respectful, objective, and formal.

Tone also relates to the level of certainty. In academic writing, an appropriate level of certainty is required, depending on the claims being made. One of the ways certainty, or lack thereof, can be expressed is through modality, such as modal verbs may or might, or adverbs such as possibly or likely. No modality expresses a high degree of certainty. At any rate, it is important to consider whether the tone of the writing is appropriate.

Finally, academic writing requires consistency in maintaining stylistic choices. There are a number of aspects of the writing that require choices. For example, using single quotation marks instead of double, which words are italicised, or the style of subheadings. Once a choice has been made, then that choice needs to be maintained throughout the whole text. Sometimes, a style guide may be provided by a lecturer or course teacher in which these choices are made.

At the same time, it should be understood that consistency does not mean repetition. Generally, repetition should be kept to a minimum by utilising synonyms or rephrasing ideas. However, sometimes repetition cannot be avoided. On the other hand, repetition can be purposely used as a rhetorical device. The writer should be aware of the issue and consciously consider their use of repetition.

Critical Thinking

The ability to use critical thinking is required in order to write effective academic texts. Academic writing does not only constitute writing in a clear academic style, with well organised paragraphs, and grammatically correct sentences. These are the means to facilitate the presentation of ideas in the most appropriate form, thereby allowing for the ideas to be the focus of the writing.

Instead, it is the ideas themselves that are the point of writing in the first place, and it is the quality of those ideas that is of primary importance. It is critical thinking, or lack thereof, that determines the quality of the ideas of a text.

Critical thinking is involved in all stages of the writing process (which are not linear but circular): research, planning, drafting, redrafting and editing. It can be understood as a way of evaluating ideas, which involves asking questions about the ideas being appraised, considering the assumptions being made, as well as the implications that are either inferred or overtly stated. It involves considering the strengths and weaknesses of an idea and the reasoning underlying the idea.

It may be useful to consider the criteria upon which to evaluate ideas. Understanding the context in which the ideas are located is necessary to understand the significance of the ideas. It is also important to understand what different sources of authority think of the idea. As well, it may be relevant to consider who or what benefits out of the idea, and conversely, who or what is disadvantaged. When researching a topic or issue, the validity and credibility of the information should be considered.

For example, the information may be out of date, or it may be significantly biased. It also may not be directly relevant. In developing a plan for the writing, it is important to consider the connections between the ideas, the assumptions being made, the strengths and weaknesses, benefits and drawbacks. In the drafting and redrafting process, these questions need to be revisited, as well considering the validity of the examples and explanations provided and whether enough (or too much) explanation is given.

Critical thinking skills form a significant part of the writing process and are explored in detail throughout the textbook.

Incorporating Source Material and Referencing

As discussed above in relation to the concept of dialectic, all academic writing requires research and the locating of the writing within the field surrounding the topic or issue, and critical thinking skills are required for higher quality research. It is crucial to base your writing on credible and relevant information; thus, it is your job when doing research, to learn about the topic and weigh up the information as to its suitability and credibility.

While reading background information from general sources can be useful, such information is not suitable for academic work. You will need to base your work on academic sources and information that is deemed important within the academic community of your discipline. See Chapter Three for more information. At the same time, it is important to develop effective techniques to incorporate this source material into the writing.

Firstly, ideas, examples, and evidence taken from source material need to be properly acknowledged and referenced. A system of referencing, such as Harvard, MLA, or APA is required and must be followed according to the rules provided. Secondly, it should be understood that when done well, the use of this material strengthens the writing; it is only when the sources of ideas are not acknowledged that there is a problem.

Furthermore, the key to successfully using this material is to incorporate it into the writer’s own writing (known as synthesis), rather than as a replacement for their writing, even when correctly acknowledged. Academic writing does not constitute a collection of ideas or evidence from source material. The writer constructs the text based on the organisation of the ideas they have gathered through their research, and source material is woven into the text as example, evidence, or providing quotation from authority.

This source material is generally explained further or commented upon as to its relevance or relationship with the point being presented by the writer. Moreover, source material may be presented either by use of paraphrase or direct quotation. The reasons for the use of either method, as well as ways in which they may be done effectively, will be explored in the textbook.

Final Remarks

Academic writing is a skill that requires discipline and practice. It involves getting to know what is appropriate in terms of language and structure, as well as the information that is used. The process of academic writing involves researching a topic, organising ideas, and then beginning to write. It is at this stage where a lot of the real work begins. The deeper you go into the writing, the more you will find you need to research more information.

Once you have a first complete draft, you can begin to rework it into a concise, coherent and cohesive academic piece of writing. The final touches are added in the editing and proofreading stages. The chapters of this book will provide you with ideas and skills that can help you with this process.

Readings and Activities

The following readings, concerned with writing in English, discuss important issues of style and grammar that every writer should consider. It should be noted that they are provided for critical reading and thinking about the issues they raise. They are not suggested as presenting guidelines or positions taken in the textbook. A number of focus questions have been provided for either group discussion or individual contemplation.

Orwell G (1950) [1946] ‘Politics and the English language’ in Shooting an elephant and other essays, Secker and Warburg, http://www.orwell.ru/library/essays/politics/english/e_polit

According to Orwell, what is wrong with English writing (at the time of his essay)?

What specific aspects of written English is Orwell concerned about?

Why is Orwell concerned about it?

What do you think about Orwell’s assessment of English writing?

What remedies does Orwell suggest?

Do you think that Orwell’s remedies are useful advice?

After working through this textbook, revisit these questions and reconsider your responses.

Zarmati L (1998) ‘Archaeo-speak: the politics of language in archaeology’ in Casey M (ed) Redefining archaeology: feminist perspectives, ANH Publishing,

http://www.academia.edu/7711811/Archaeo-speak_the_politics_of_language_in_archaeology

What is Zarmati’s concern with the use of jargon in academic language?

What are some other concerns about academic language that Zarmati has?

Why is she concerned about these things?

What is your opinion on these concerns?

Consider Zarmati’s remedies; would you agree with all of these?

Revisit your responses after working through the textbook.

Prisk J (2 November 2011) ‘Whatever we do, it’s important we do it in style’, Sydney Morning Herald, accessed 10 January 2023, https://www.smh.com.au/national/whatever-we-do-its-important-we-do-it-in-style-20111101-1mttn.html

What does Prisk suggest is the main purpose of developing a style in writing?

What aspects of style does Prisk discuss?

Do you agree with the meanings Prisk attributes to different stylistic choices?

How can Prisk’s article on style in journalism be related to academic writing?

What aspects of academic style do you think are important?

Why is consistency important in academic writing?

Petelin R (27 October 2016) ‘Crimes of grammar and other writing misdemeanours’, The Conversation, accessed 9 February 2023, https://theconversation.com/crimes-of-grammar-and-other-writing-misdemeanours-67558

What aspects of grammar does Petelin consider important in effective academic writing?

What aspects of grammar does Petelin suggest a writer not concern themselves with?

How important do you consider grammar and punctuation in your writing?

What are your reasons that underly this?

The following questions are general questions to consider in group discussion or as individual contemplation in relation to ideas presented in this chapter.

What types of academic writing have you done up till now?

What types of academic writing do you expect you will need to do in the future at university?

Do you find it helps to make a plan, or do you prefer to just start writing?

What aspects of academic writing do you find difficult?

Do you consider who the reader will be when you are writing?

Does the idea of a reader affect or change your writing?

What are some ways you use to order your writing?

How can you learn what is suitable as academic style vocabulary?

What search engines do you use to do academic research in English?

How do you make notes from your research?

Have you ever kept a notebook to jot down ideas that come to you when you are not specifically working on your writing; for example, on the train, lying in bed, walking in the park?

How do you analyse the usefulness and effectiveness of information you may find?

Do you redraft your writing or just do it in one draft?

If you redraft, what do you do to analyse and