Fighter Aircraft: Exploring the Evolution of Aerial Combat Power

By Fouad Sabry

What is Fighter Aircraft

Fighter aircraft are military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat. In military conflict, the role of fighter aircraft is to establish air superiority of the battlespace. Domination of the airspace above a battlefield permits bombers and attack aircraft to engage in tactical and strategic bombing of enemy targets.

How you will benefit

(I) Insights, and validations about the following topics:

Chapter 1: Fighter aircraft

Chapter 2: Lockheed F-104 Starfighter

Chapter 3: Interceptor aircraft

Chapter 4: Heavy fighter

Chapter 5: Surface-to-air missile

Chapter 6: McDonnell F-101 Voodoo

Chapter 7: Fourth-generation fighter

Chapter 8: Light fighter

Chapter 9: Air supremacy

Chapter 10: Sukhoi Su-15

(II) Answering the public top questions about fighter aircraft.

Who this book is for

Professionals, undergraduate and graduate students, enthusiasts, hobbyists, and those who want to go beyond basic knowledge or information for any kind of Fighter Aircraft.

• Language: English
• Publisher: One Billion Knowledgeable
• Release date: Jun 19, 2024

Book preview

Chapter 1: Fighter aircraft

In addition to its weaponry, a fighter's important performance characteristics also include its high speed and maneuverability relative to the target aircraft. The success or failure of a combatant's efforts to achieve air superiority depends on a variety of elements, such as the proficiency of its pilots, the tactical soundness of its doctrine for deploying its fighters, and the quantity and effectiveness of those planes.

Some fighter aircraft, such as fighter-bombers, are intended from the outset for multiple duties. Other fighter designs, such as the interceptor, heavy fighter, and night fighter, are highly specialized yet nevertheless fulfill the primary air superiority duty.

Since World War I, obtaining and sustaining air supremacy has been regarded as crucial for conventional success.

The development of fighters continued during World War I in order to deny enemy aircraft and dirigibles the ability to conduct reconnaissance above the battlefield. The majority of early fighters were biplanes with a wooden frame covered in fabric and a maximum airspeed of approximately 100 miles per hour (160 kilometers per hour). As the importance of controlling the airspace above armies grew, all of the major nations produced fighters to support their military operations. Wood was extensively replaced between the wars by metal tube, and then aluminum stressed skin constructions (monocoque) came to predominate.

By World War II, the majority of fighters were all-metal monoplanes armed with machine guns or cannons and capable of speeds surpassing 400 miles per hour (640 kilometers per hour). Several twin-engine aircraft were constructed, but they were proven to be inferior to single-engine fighters and consigned to alternative roles, such as night fighters with crude radar sets.

By the end of the war, turbojet engines had replaced piston engines as the primary mode of propulsion, increasing aircraft speed even further. Since the weight of a turbojet engine was far less than that of a piston engine, having two engines was no longer an impediment, and depending on the situation, either one or two were utilized. This, in turn, necessitated the creation of ejection seats to allow the pilot to escape and G-suits to counteract the significantly increased forces delivered to the pilot during maneuvers.

Due to ever-increasing air-to-air weapon ranges, day fighters were equipped with radar in the 1950s, as pilots could no longer see far enough ahead to prepare for the opposition. Subsequently, radar capabilities expanded dramatically and are currently the primary way for acquiring targets. To reduce transonic drag, wings were made thinner and swept back, necessitating new manufacturing techniques to ensure appropriate strength. Skins were no longer attached to a structure with sheet metal rivets, but were instead machined from huge alloy slabs. The sound barrier was breached, and after a few false starts caused by required control adjustments, the speed swiftly approached Mach 2, the threshold beyond which aircraft cannot maneuver effectively to avoid assault.

Air-to-air missiles largely replaced guns and rockets in the early 1960s, as both were thought to be ineffective at the speeds being achieved. However, the Vietnam War demonstrated that guns still had a role, and most fighters built since then are equipped with cannon (typically between 20 and 30 mm (0.79 and 1.18 in) in addition to missiles. The majority of contemporary combat aircraft can carry at least two air-to-air missiles.

In the 1970s, turbofans replaced turbojets, improving fuel economy to the point that the final piston-powered support aircraft could be replaced with jets, allowing for the development of multirole combat aircraft. Honeycomb structures began to replace milled constructions, and the first composite components began to appear in low-stress areas.

With the continual advancement of computer technology, defensive systems have become more effective. In response, the United States, Russia, India, and China have all pursued stealth technologies. The initial phase was to identify techniques to lower the reflectivity of the aircraft to radar waves by concealing the engines, removing sharp corners, and redirecting any reflections away from the radar sets of the opposing forces. Diverse materials were discovered to absorb the energy from radar waves and have subsequently been combined into unique finishes with broad use. Composite structures, including key structural components, have grown popular and have helped to mitigate the constant increase in aircraft weight; the majority of modern fighters are larger and heavier than World War II medium bombers.

Due to the significance of air superiority, since the earliest days of aerial combat, armed forces have constantly competed to develop technologically superior fighters and to deploy these fighters in greater numbers, and fielding a viable fighter fleet consumes a significant portion of modern armed forces' defense budgets.

The primary purpose of a fighter aircraft is air-to-air combat. Interceptor refers to a short-range fighter designed to protect against incoming enemy aircraft.

Among the recognized classes of fighter are:

Air superiority fighter

Fighter-bomber

Heavy fighter

Interceptor

Light fighter

All-weather warrior (including the night fighter)

Reconnaissance fighter

Strategic combatant (including the escort fighter and strike fighter)

The Fighter-bomber, reconnaissance fighter, and strike fighter classes are dual-purpose, combining fighter characteristics with those of another tactical duty. Some fighter designs may be adapted for completely other tasks, such as ground attack or unarmed reconnaissance. This could be for political or national security, advertising, or other purposes.

During World War I, the Sopwith Camel and other fighter scouts conducted a tremendous lot of ground-attack activity. During World War II, the USAAF and RAF frequently prioritized fighters over dedicated light bombers or dive bombers, and aircraft such as the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt and Hawker Hurricane, which were no longer competitive as aerial combat fighters, were assigned to ground assault. Several aircraft, like the F-111 and F-117, were designated as fighters despite lacking fighter capabilities for political or other reasons. The F-111B variant was originally designed to serve as a fighter for the U.S. Navy, but the program was terminated. This confusion stems from the early use of fighters for attack or strike missions against ground targets by strafing or the release of small bombs and incendiaries. Versatile fighter-bombers with several roles, such as the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet, are less expensive than a variety of specialized aircraft types.

Some of the most expensive fighters, such as the US Grumman F-14 Tomcat, McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor, and Russian Sukhoi Su-27, were utilized as all-weather interceptors as well as air superiority fighters, and later developed air-to-ground capabilities. Interceptors are typically designed to target (or intercept) bombers, hence they frequently sacrifice maneuverability for climb rate.

As part of military nomenclature, a letter is frequently allocated to aircraft types to signify its function, combined with a number to identify the specific aircraft. The letters used to denote a fighter vary between nations. In the English-speaking world, F is frequently used to denote a fighter (e.g. Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II or Supermarine Spitfire F.22), whereas P was formerly used in the United States for pursuit (e.g. Curtiss P-40 Warhawk), a translation of the French C (Dewoitine D.520 C.1) for Chasseur, whereas in Russia I was used for Istrebite (Polikarpov I-16).

As fighter types have proliferated, the air superiority fighter has arisen as a specific position at the pinnacle of speed, maneuverability, and air-to-air weapon systems — capable of competing with all other fighters and establishing its domination over the battlefield's skies.

The interceptor is a type of fighter particularly designed to intercept and engage in combat with incoming enemy aircraft. There are two general categories of interceptors: relatively lightweight aircraft in the point-defence role, designed for quick reaction, high performance, and a short range, and heavier aircraft with more advanced avionics and designed to fly at night or in all weather conditions and over longer ranges. Originating in World War I, by 1929 this category of fighter aircraft was known as interceptors.

The equipment required for daytime flight is inadequate for nighttime or poor visibility flights. During World War I, extra equipment was added to the night fighter to aid the pilot in flying straight, navigating, and locating the target. The night fighter has evolved from modified variations of the Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2c in 1915 into a highly proficient all-weather fighter.

The strategic fighter is a fast, heavily armed, and long-range type that can cover bombers as an escort fighter, conduct offensive missions as a penetration fighter, and maintain long-distance patrols from its home base.

Due to their slow speed, enormous size, and limited maneuverability, bombers are susceptible. During World War II, the escort fighter was created to serve as a buffer between bombers and enemy attacks. The key requirement was for long range, and a number of heavy fighters were tasked with fulfilling it. As the conflict proceeded, innovations such as drop tanks were developed to expand the range of conventional fighters that were more agile and maneuverable.

Typically, the penetration fighter is also equipped for ground-attack missions, allowing it to defend itself while conducting assault sorties.

The term fighter was originally applied to a two-seat aircraft equipped with a machine gun (placed on a pedestal) and its operator in addition to the pilot. Although the phrase was coined in the United Kingdom, the first examples were French Voisin pushers beginning in 1910, and on October 5, 1914, a Voisin III was the first aircraft to shoot down another.

Another sort of military aircraft served as the foundation for a fighter in the contemporary sense. It was based on small, fast aircraft designed for air racing prior to World War II, such as the Gordon Bennett Cup and Schneider Trophy. The military scout aircraft was not planned to carry significant weaponry, but rather to rely on speed to scout a place and rapidly return to report, making it a flying horse. In this context, British scout aircraft included the Sopwith Tabloid and Bristol Scout. French and German reconnaissance aircraft, such as the Morane-Saulnier L, were two-seaters; however, pre-war racing aircraft were later converted into armed single-seaters. Pilots were unable to document their observations while flying, and military commanders typically disregarded what pilots reported.

It was attempted to use pistols, rifles, and even light machine guns, but these weapons were ineffectual and heavy. The next innovation was the fixed forward-firing machine gun, which allowed the pilot to point the entire aircraft at the target and fire the gun without needing a second gunner. Roland Garros (aviator) modified a number of Morane-Saulnier Ns by affixing metal deflector plates to the propeller so that it would not blast itself out of the sky. The strategy proved efficient, but the deflected bullets remained extremely lethal.

Pilots quickly armed themselves with pistols, carbines, grenades, and a variety of homemade weaponry after the start of the war. As the pilot flew his aircraft while attempting to aim a handgun and make a tricky deflection shot, several of these proved ineffectual. The first step in finding a true solution was mounting the weapon on the airplane, but the propeller remained an issue because the optimal shooting direction was straight ahead. Multiple solutions were attempted. A second crew member behind the pilot could aim and fire a swivel-mounted machine gun at hostile aircraft; nevertheless, the area of coverage was primarily limited to the rear hemisphere, and efficient coordination between the pilot and gunner was challenging. Since 1915, this capability was mostly used as a defensive precaution on two-seater reconnaissance aircraft. Both the SPAD S.A and the Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.9 included a second crewmember in a pod in front of the engine, although this posed a danger to the second crewmember and hampered the aircraft's performance. The Sopwith L.R.T.Tr added a pod to its upper wing with no better results.

As an alternative, the Airco DH.2 pusher scout with the propeller positioned behind the pilot was constructed. Due to the pusher aircraft's tail structure's high drag, it was slower than comparable tractor aircraft. A better alternative for a single-seat scout (rifles and pistols having been eliminated) was to mount the machine gun to shoot forwards but outside the propeller arc. Wing guns were attempted, but the available unstable weapons necessitated repeated clearing of blocked rounds and misfires, making them impracticable until the end of the war. Mounting the machine gun on the upper wing was an effective solution that was utilized long after the optimal solution was discovered. The 1916 Nieuport 11 utilized this method with great success; nonetheless, its placement made aiming and reloading difficult, yet it was used throughout the war because the weapons were lighter and had a higher rate of fire than synchronized weapons. The British Foster mounting and numerous French mountings were built expressly for this type of purpose, and were equipped with either the Hotchkiss or Lewis Machine gun, which were unsuitable for synchronization due to their design. Prior to the onset of war, the need to equip a tractor scout with a forward-firing gun whose bullets passed through the propeller arc was clear, and innovators in France and Germany created devices that could time the discharge of the individual rounds to avoid striking the propeller blades. The Swiss engineer Franz Schneider had patented such a gadget in Germany in 1913, but his initial work was not continued. In April 1914, French aircraft designer Raymond Saulnier patented a feasible mechanism, but trials were unsuccessful due to the tendency of