Council of War: Strategic Decisions that Shaped History

By Fouad Sabry

What is Council of War

The term "council of war" comes from the field of military science and refers to a gathering that takes place in the midst of a conflict in order to make a decision regarding the next course of action. Under typical conditions, decisions are taken by a commanding officer, which may or may not be communicated and coordinated by staff officers. Subordinate officers are then responsible for carrying out any choices that have been made. Councils of war are often convened in situations where decisions need to be made regarding subjects of significant significance, for the purpose of reaching a consensus with subordinates, or when the commanding officer is uncertain of his stance. The traditional council of war consists of a discussion followed by a vote, which is typically conducted in the absence of the senior commander, who may have been there to exert influence or threaten the subordinates. During these kinds of gatherings, it is customary for the officers to vote in the opposite order of their seniority, with the officers with less experience casting their ballots first.

How you will benefit

(I) Insights, and validations about the following topics:

Chapter 1: Council of War

Chapter 2: Battle of Gettysburg

Chapter 3: Robert E. Lee

Chapter 4: Battle of Chancellorsville

Chapter 5: Battle of Fredericksburg

Chapter 6: Battle of the Wilderness

Chapter 7: George Meade

Chapter 8: Battle of Five Forks

Chapter 9: Commander-in-chief

Chapter 10: Richard S. Ewell

(II) Answering the public top questions about council of war.

Who this book is for

Professionals, undergraduate and graduate students, enthusiasts, hobbyists, and those who want to go beyond basic knowledge or information for any kind of Council of War.

• Language: English
• Publisher: One Billion Knowledgeable
• Release date: Jun 23, 2024

Book preview

Chapter 1: Council of war

The term council of war comes from the field of military science and refers to a gathering that takes place in the midst of a conflict in order to make a decision regarding the next course of action. Under typical conditions, decisions are taken by a commanding officer, which may or may not be communicated and coordinated by staff officers. Thereafter, subordinate officers are responsible for putting those decisions into action. Councils of war are often convened in situations where decisions need to be made regarding subjects of significant significance, for the purpose of reaching a consensus with subordinates, or when the commanding officer is uncertain of his stance. The traditional council of war consists of a discussion followed by a vote, which is typically conducted in the absence of the senior commander, who may have been there to exert influence or threaten the subordinates. Within the context of such gatherings, it is customary for the officers to vote in the opposite order of their seniority, with the junior officers casting their ballots coming first.

In civilian parlance, the term council of war can be used to refer to any significant gathering, such as in the corporate world, that is required to make a decision despite the presence of challenging circumstances.

An alternative to the conventional council of war is one in which the subordinates cast their votes, but the results are regarded as purely advisory to the overall commander, who subsequently makes the ultimate decision. During the Battle of Gettysburg, which took place on July 2, 1863, Major General George G. Meade, who was in charge of the Union Army of the Potomac, called a meeting of his Corps commanders and staff to discuss whether or not they should withdraw from the battlefield. If they did not withdraw, they were to decide whether or not they should attack Robert E. Lee's Confederate army or wait for him to attack. Evidence from the past suggests that Meade had already made up his mind to remain and wait for Lee's assault, which took place on July 3 and was a disastrous assault known as Pickett's Charge. However, Meade was able to achieve the desired objective by encouraging his workers to participate in a two-hour discussion and vote, which resulted in the formation of a consensus among them and an increase in their confidence.

Council of War: Strategic Decision-Making in Military Science

Introduction

In military science, the term council of war refers to a formal meeting convened by military leaders to deliberate on crucial strategic or tactical decisions, typically during the heat of battle. While the standard protocol in military operations involves the commanding officer making decisions and disseminating orders through staff officers to be executed by subordinate officers, the council of war serves as a vital exception. These councils are convened in situations of extraordinary importance, where collective input is deemed necessary, consensus is critical, or when the commanding officer seeks advice due to uncertainty regarding the situation.

Historical Context

Councils of war have a storied history, dating back to ancient times. Throughout history, military leaders have convened such councils to discuss the best courses of action, particularly when faced with dire circumstances. For instance, during the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon Bonaparte frequently convened councils of war to discuss strategies with his marshals. Similarly, during the American Civil War, General Robert E. Lee often held councils with his generals to plan significant operations.

The structure and conduct of these councils have evolved over time, but their core purpose remains unchanged: to gather collective wisdom and reach a decision that has the greatest chance of success. The involvement of multiple officers ensures that diverse perspectives are considered, and potential pitfalls are identified and mitigated.

Structure and Conduct of Councils of War

A classic council of war involves a structured discussion followed by a vote. The tradition dictates that the most junior officers cast their votes first, progressing in reverse order of seniority. This approach ensures that junior officers are not unduly influenced or intimidated by the opinions of their senior counterparts, thereby fostering honest and unreserved input.

1. Discussion Phase: The council begins with a thorough discussion of the current situation. This includes an analysis of available intelligence, assessment of enemy capabilities, evaluation of terrain and weather conditions, and consideration of logistical constraints. Officers present their insights, opinions, and recommendations based on their areas of expertise and experience.

2. Deliberation and Debate: Following the initial discussion, the council engages in a more focused deliberation. Officers debate the merits and drawbacks of various courses of action. This phase is crucial for identifying potential risks, contingency plans, and alternative strategies. The commanding officer may facilitate the debate but typically refrains from expressing a definitive opinion to avoid biasing the discussion.

3. Voting: Once the debate concludes, the council proceeds to the voting phase. The junior officers vote first, providing their recommendations without the influence of senior officers' opinions. This sequence continues up the chain of command until all officers have voted. The votes are then tallied, and the collective decision is presented.

4. Decision Implementation: Based on the council's decision, the commanding officer formulates the final plan of action. While the commanding officer has the authority to override the council's recommendations, doing so is rare and usually justified by compelling reasons. The final decision is communicated to subordinate units for execution.

Importance of Councils of War in Military Operations

Councils of war play a crucial role in military operations for several reasons:

1. Enhanced Decision-Making: By leveraging the collective knowledge and experience of multiple officers, councils of war enhance the quality of decision-making. Diverse perspectives help identify potential challenges and opportunities that a single commander might overlook.

2. Consensus Building: Councils of war facilitate consensus building among senior and subordinate officers. When officers collectively agree on a course of action, it fosters a sense of shared responsibility and commitment to the plan. This unity is essential for maintaining morale and cohesion during complex operations.

3. Risk Mitigation: The deliberative nature of councils of war allows for thorough risk assessment and contingency planning. Potential risks are identified and addressed, reducing the likelihood of unforeseen complications during execution.

4. Flexibility and Adaptability: Councils of war enable military units to adapt to rapidly changing circumstances. In the fog of war, unexpected developments are common. Councils provide a structured forum for assessing new information and adjusting plans accordingly.

5. Commander Support: For commanding officers, councils of war offer valuable support in uncertain situations. Seeking input from experienced subordinates can provide clarity and confidence in decision-making, especially when the stakes are high.

Notable Examples of Councils of War

Throughout history, several notable councils of war have had significant impacts on the outcomes of battles and campaigns:

1. Battle of Trenton (1776): During the American Revolutionary War, General George Washington convened a council of war to plan the surprise attack on the Hessian forces stationed in Trenton, New Jersey. The successful execution of this plan reinvigorated the Continental Army and altered the course of the war.

2. Battle of Gettysburg (1863): Prior to the Battle of Gettysburg, Confederate General Robert E. Lee held councils of war to discuss strategies with his corps commanders. Despite differing opinions, Lee ultimately decided on a direct assault, leading to the infamous Pickett's Charge and a pivotal Union victory.

3. D-Day (1944): In the lead-up to the D-Day invasion of Normandy during World War II, Allied commanders, including General Dwight D. Eisenhower, held extensive councils of war to plan the operation. The collaborative efforts of these councils were instrumental in the successful execution of the largest amphibious invasion in history.

Challenges and Limitations

While councils of war offer numerous advantages, they also present certain challenges and limitations:

1. Time-Consuming: The deliberative process of councils of war can be time-consuming. In fast-paced combat situations, the time required for thorough discussion and voting may not always be available.

2. Potential for Conflict: Differences of opinion among officers can lead to conflict and indecision. If not managed effectively, these disagreements can hinder the decision-making process and delay critical actions.

3. Overreliance on Consensus: Striving for consensus may sometimes lead to compromises that dilute the effectiveness of the final decision. It is essential for the commanding officer to balance consensus-building with the need for decisive action.

4. Command Responsibility: Ultimately, the responsibility for the decision rests with the commanding officer. While councils of war provide valuable input, the commander must be prepared to make the final call and bear the consequences.

Conclusion

Councils of war represent a vital aspect of military science, offering a structured approach to collective decision-making in critical situations. By bringing together the expertise and insights of multiple officers, these councils enhance the quality of decisions, foster consensus, and improve the adaptability of military units. Despite their challenges, councils of war remain an indispensable tool for military leaders, ensuring that strategic and tactical decisions are well-informed, thoroughly debated, and collaboratively supported. As warfare continues to evolve, the principles and practices of councils of war will remain relevant, guiding military leaders in their pursuit of victory.

{End Chapter 1}

Chapter 2: Battle of Gettysburg

The Battle of Gettysburg (locally /ˈɡɛtɪsbɜːrɡ/ ( listen))

Following the victory that he achieved at Chancellorsville in Virginia in May of 1863, Lee moved his army into the Shenandoah Valley to initiate his second invasion of the North, which was known as the Gettysburg Campaign as well. Despite the fact that his army was in a good mood, Lee planned to move the focus of the summer campaign away from the war-torn northern Virginia. He also aimed to persuade Northern leaders to abandon their involvement in the war by penetrating as far as Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, or maybe Philadelphia. Abraham Lincoln, the President of the United States, encouraged Major General Joseph Hooker to advance his army in pursuit; nevertheless, he was dismissed of command just three days before the engagement and replaced by Meade.

In the beginning, elements of the two armies came into contact with one another at Gettysburg on July 1, 1863. This occurred while Lee was urgently concentrating his forces there with the intention of engaging the Union army and destroying it. Initially, a Union cavalry division led by Brigadier General John Buford was responsible for defending the low ridges to the northwest of the town. Subsequently, two corps of Union infantry were eventually deployed to reinforce the defenses. However, two huge Confederate corps attacked them from the north and northwest, causing the hastily constructed Union lines to collapse. As a result, the defenders were forced to retire through the streets of the town and into the hills that were located close to the south. During the second day of the conflict, the majority of both forces had gathered together. The Union line was organized in a defensive shape that resembled a fishhook with its formation. In the late afternoon of July 2, Lee launched a massive assault on the left flank of the Union army. At the same time, violent action raged at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devil's Den, and the Peach Orchard. Confederate demonstrations on the Union right developed into full-scale attacks on Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill. These assaults also occurred on Cemetery Hill. The defenders of the Union maintained their positions over the whole battlefield, although suffering substantial casualties.

atop the third day of the war, fighting resumed atop Culp's Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south. However, the most significant event was a dramatic infantry attack known as Pickett's Charge, which was carried out by around 12,000 Confederates against the middle of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge. Confederate forces suffered significant casualties as a result of the charge, which was stopped by artillery and rifle fire from the Union. In a harrowing retreat back to Virginia, Lee led his soldiers through the ordeal. This three-day fight, which was the most expensive in the history of the United States, resulted in the deaths of between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies. In his historic Gettysburg Address, which took place on November 19, President Abraham Lincoln utilized the occasion of the dedication ceremony for the Gettysburg National Cemetery to pay tribute to the Union soldiers who had died during the war and to clarify the purpose of the conflict.

The first invasion of the North was an unsuccessful Maryland campaign in September 1862, which resulted in the bloody Battle of Antietam. General Robert E. Lee made the decision to launch a second invasion of the North shortly after the Army of Northern Virginia achieved a significant victory over the Army of the Potomac at the Battle of Chancellorsville, which took place from April 30 to May 6, 1863. The plans that the Union had for the summer campaigning season would be disrupted by such a maneuver, and the pressure that was being applied to the besieged Confederate garrison at Vicksburg may potentially be reduced. After the invasion, the Confederates would be able to survive off the abundance of the wealthy farms in the North, while Virginia, which had been devastated by the war, would be able to get some much-needed rest.