Short Notes On Water And Sanitation Management

By Mogana S. Flomo, Jr.

"Water and Sanitation Management" offers a comprehensive exploration of the significance, approaches, challenges, and latest trends in the field. The book equips readers with practical skills and essential knowledge necessary for implementing and managing effective water and sanitation programs in various settings.

Water and sanitation management encompasses the planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of activities aimed at ensuring sustainable and equitable provision of safe drinking water, adequate sanitation, and hygiene practices. This field focuses on improving public health and well-being by managing water resources, water treatment and distribution, sanitation infrastructure, and waste management systems. Effective management requires a multi-sectoral approach, involving collaboration and coordination among governments, civil society organizations, the private sector, and communities.

The importance of water and sanitation management is multifaceted. Public health is directly tied to access to safe drinking water, proper sanitation, and good hygiene practices. Ensuring these basic necessities helps prevent waterborne diseases like cholera, diarrhea, typhoid, and hepatitis A. For instance, providing safe drinking water reduces the prevalence of waterborne illnesses, as evidenced by the significant decline in such diseases in rural Sub-Saharan Africa with improved water sources. Proper sanitation facilities, such as latrines and sewage systems, play a crucial role in reducing the spread of diseases, as seen in Southeast Asia where better sanitation practices led to fewer diarrheal diseases. Promoting good hygiene practices, such as regular handwashing, significantly reduces the incidence of diseases like cholera.

Economic development is also closely linked to water and sanitation management. The lack of access to clean water and proper sanitation hampers economic growth by causing time and productivity losses, increasing healthcare costs, and leading to higher absenteeism rates. Individuals, especially women and children, spend significant time collecting water, which could otherwise be used for productive activities, exacerbating poverty. Communities with inadequate sanitation face higher healthcare expenditures due to the costs associated with treating waterborne illnesses, particularly in low-income urban settings.

The book delves into the social dimensions of water distribution and the impacts of unequal access on vulnerable communities. It highlights disparities in access between urban and rural areas, the health impacts of unequal access, and the gender dynamics involved. Teaching about equity and access fosters an awareness of the need for inclusive policies to ensure that vulnerable populations have equitable access to clean water and sanitation.

The content aligns with the United Nations' 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, emphasizing goals such as universal access to safe and affordable drinking water and the improvement of water quality by preventing pollution, aligning with SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation. The book also addresses disparities in access to water and sanitation services to promote equality, aligning with SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities.

By addressing the various challenges in water and sanitation management, including water scarcity, poor sanitation, aging infrastructure, funding, climate change, and equity, the book provides a holistic approach. It underscores the importance of coordinated efforts and significant investments in infrastructure, technology, and policies to achieve sustainable water and sanitation management.

This detailed exploration of water and sanitation management serves as a critical resource for professionals and students alike, offering both theoretical insights and practical guidance for making meaningful contributions to the field.

 

• Language: English
• Publisher: MGI Inc.
• Release date: Jun 20, 2024
• ISBN: 9798227570994

Mogana S. Flomo, Jr.

Dr. Mogana S. Flomo, Jr., born in 1976 in Liberia, is a prominent figure in academia, agriculture, and public health. As Founder of CEPRES Inc. and CEPRES International University, he champions education, environmental sustainability, and public health. With 26 years in academia, he serves as a lecturer and consultant, shaping higher education in Liberia. Notably, he led Liberia's agricultural sector as the Former Minister of Agriculture, advocating for sustainability and smallholder farmers empowerment. Dr. Flomo's entrepreneurial endeavors focus on innovative strategies for smallholder farmers. A prolific author, he contributes significantly to literature in agriculture, environmental sustainability, Education, and public health. Board memberships further showcase his commitment to holistic development, leaving an indelible mark on Liberia's progress.

Book preview

1  Introduction to Water and Sanitation Management

1.1 Overview:

This Book is designed to provide a comprehensive understanding of water and sanitation management, including its significance, approaches, challenges, and the latest trends. It will equip the learners with practical skills and knowledge necessary for implementing and managing effective water and sanitation programs in diverse settings.

1.2  Definition of Water and Sanitation Management

WATER AND SANITATION management refers to the planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of activities aimed at ensuring the sustainable and equitable provision of safe drinking water, adequate sanitation, and hygiene practices to improve public health and well-being. It involves the management of water resources, water treatment and distribution, sanitation infrastructure, and waste management systems. Effective water and sanitation management requires a multi-sectoral approach that involves collaboration and coordination among various stakeholders, including governments, civil society organizations, private sector, and communities.

1.3  Importance of water and sanitation management

1.3.1  Public Health:

PUBLIC HEALTH IS INTRICATELY tied to access to safe drinking water, proper sanitation, and good hygiene practices. The prevention of waterborne diseases, including cholera, diarrhea, typhoid, and hepatitis A, is contingent upon ensuring these basic necessities.

Access to Safe Drinking Water:

Access to safe drinking water is a fundamental aspect of public health. In many regions, contamination of drinking water sources poses a significant health risk. For instance, a study conducted in rural areas of Sub-Saharan Africa found that communities lacking access to clean water experienced higher incidences of waterborne diseases. The provision of safe drinking water, through measures such as improved water sources and water treatment facilities, has been demonstrated to reduce the prevalence of waterborne illnesses (WHO, 2019).

Proper Sanitation:

Inadequate sanitation facilities contribute significantly to the spread of waterborne diseases. For example, regions with poor sanitation infrastructure often experience higher rates of diarrheal diseases due to the contamination of water sources by human waste. A study in Southeast Asia highlighted that the implementation of proper sanitation practices resulted in a notable decline in diarrheal disease cases within communities. Improved sanitation facilities, including the construction of latrines and sewage systems, play a crucial role in safeguarding public health.

Good Hygiene Practices:

Hygiene practices, such as regular handwashing, are essential for preventing the transmission of waterborne pathogens. A case-control study in urban settings revealed that promoting handwashing with soap significantly reduced the incidence of cholera and other waterborne diseases (Curtis & Cairncross, 2003). Behavioral interventions that emphasize the importance of good hygiene practices contribute to breaking the chain of infection and protecting community health.

It is important to note that the nexus between public health and access to safe drinking water, proper sanitation, and good hygiene practices is evident in numerous real-life scenarios. The implementation of infrastructure improvements, hygiene education, and sanitation initiatives has proven effective in mitigating waterborne diseases, underscoring the critical role of these factors in promoting public health.

1.3.2  Economic Development:

THE LACK OF ACCESS to clean water and sanitation facilities constitutes a significant barrier to economic development, impacting various facets of communities and individuals. This impediment manifests in tangible economic losses due to time inefficiencies, increased healthcare expenditures, and elevated rates of absenteeism.

Time and Productivity Losses:

Insufficient access to clean water and sanitation facilities can lead to substantial time and productivity losses. In communities where individuals must travel long distances to fetch water or lack proper sanitation facilities, considerable time is diverted from productive activities such as work or education. For instance, a study in rural areas of developing countries found that the time spent by individuals, predominantly women and children, on water-related tasks had a direct correlation with decreased productivity and limited economic opportunities. These time burdens exacerbate poverty and hinder the overall economic progress of communities.

Healthcare Costs:

The absence of adequate water and sanitation infrastructure contributes to a higher prevalence of waterborne diseases, resulting in increased healthcare costs. In a real-world example, a community-based study in a low-income urban setting demonstrated a direct link between poor sanitation and heightened healthcare expenditures due to the treatment of waterborne illnesses (Li et al., 2018). The economic burden of treating preventable diseases diverts resources that could otherwise be allocated to investments in education, infrastructure, or other economic development initiatives.

Absenteeism:

The health-related consequences of inadequate water and sanitation facilities often lead to increased absenteeism in workplaces and educational institutions. In workplaces, employees may be forced to take sick leave due to waterborne diseases caused by contaminated water sources. Similarly, in schools, students and teachers may be absent due to illnesses associated with poor sanitation. This absenteeism disrupts the continuity of economic activities and educational processes, impeding the development of human capital.

The economic ramifications of the lack of access to clean water and sanitation facilities are multifaceted, affecting productivity, healthcare expenditures, and absenteeism. Real-world examples underscore the direct correlation between improved water and sanitation infrastructure and enhanced economic development.

1.3.3  Environmental Sustainability:

THE PROPER MANAGEMENT of water resources and waste is imperative for ensuring environmental sustainability. This approach not only safeguards ecosystems but also plays a crucial role in conserving water and mitigating pollution, thereby contributing to the overall health of the planet.

Ecosystem Protection:

Effective water resource management is essential for protecting ecosystems. For instance, the restoration of wetlands has been shown to have a positive impact on biodiversity. A study conducted in the Everglades, Florida, demonstrated that proper water management practices, including maintaining natural water flow and reducing nutrient pollution, resulted in the restoration of the ecosystem and the recovery of native plant and animal species (Davis et al., 2019). This example underscores the significance of thoughtful water resource management in preserving the delicate balance of ecosystems.

Water Conservation:

Proper water resource management is a key component of water conservation efforts. In urban areas, the implementation of water-saving technologies and policies can have substantial impacts. For example, the city of Cape Town, South Africa, faced a severe water crisis that prompted the implementation of stringent water conservation measures, including restrictions on water usage and the promotion of water-saving technologies. These measures not only averted a water catastrophe but also led to a heightened awareness of the importance of water conservation among residents (City of Cape Town, 2019). This case demonstrates the pivotal role of water resource management in addressing water scarcity and fostering sustainability.

Pollution Reduction:

Effective waste management is crucial for reducing pollution and ensuring the sustainability of ecosystems. The improper disposal of waste, particularly plastic waste, poses a significant threat to marine environments. In response to this challenge, some countries have implemented successful waste management strategies. For example, Taiwan has achieved remarkable success in reducing marine plastic pollution through policies such as recycling incentives and waste reduction initiatives (Taiwan EPA, 2020). This exemplifies how strategic waste management can contribute to environmental sustainability by minimizing pollution.

In conclusion, real-world examples highlight the tangible benefits of proper water resource and waste management for environmental sustainability. These examples emphasize the interconnectedness of ecological health, water conservation, and pollution reduction in achieving a sustainable and resilient planet.

1.3.4  Examples and Case Studies:

LIBERIA:

Liberia's water and sanitation sector faces many challenges, including limited access to safe water and sanitation facilities, inadequate infrastructure, and lack of resources. The Liberian government, in partnership with international organizations, has implemented various initiatives to improve access to safe water and sanitation facilities. For example, the Liberia WASH Consortium has been working to provide clean water, sanitation, and hygiene promotion in communities and schools, while the Liberia Rural and Renewable Energy Agency has been supporting the development of water supply and sanitation infrastructure in rural areas.

Ivory Coast:

Ivory Coast has made significant progress in improving access to safe water and sanitation facilities. The government has implemented the National Program for Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation, which aims to provide access to safe water and sanitation facilities for all by 2030. The program has been successful in increasing access to safe water in urban areas, but challenges remain in rural areas. The Ivory Coast also launched the Water and Sanitation Sector Reform Program to improve the sector's governance and management.

Ghana:

Ghana has made significant progress in the water and sanitation sector, with the government implementing various initiatives to improve access to safe water and sanitation facilities. The Community Water and Sanitation Agency has been working to provide water and sanitation services to rural communities, while the Ghana WASH Project has been working to improve access to safe water and sanitation facilities in urban areas. Despite the progress, challenges remain, including inadequate infrastructure, inadequate funding, and weak governance and management.

Kenya:

Kenya has made significant progress in improving access to safe water and sanitation facilities, but challenges remain. The government has implemented various initiatives to improve access to safe water and sanitation facilities, including the Water Sector Trust Fund, which provides funding for water and sanitation projects. The Sanitation and Hygiene Improvement Program aims to improve sanitation and hygiene practices in schools and health facilities. However, challenges remain in rural areas, where access to safe water and sanitation facilities is still limited.

In conclusion, water and sanitation management is crucial for public health, economic development, and environmental sustainability. The examples and case studies from Sub-Saharan African countries, including Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Kenya, demonstrate the challenges and progress in the water and sanitation sector in the region. Governments, international organizations, and stakeholders should continue to work together to improve access to safe water and sanitation facilities in the region.

1.4  Historical perspectives on water and sanitation management

WATER AND SANITATION management has been a significant concern throughout human history. Here are some of the historical perspectives on water and sanitation management:

1.4.1  Ancient Civilizations:

AS AN EDUCATOR, IT'S fascinating to delve into how ancient civilizations, particularly the Greeks and Romans, demonstrated an understanding of the significance of clean water and sanitation, showcasing remarkable engineering feats that laid the foundation for modern urban planning and public health.

Ancient Greek Innovations:

The ancient Greeks, renowned for their contributions to philosophy and science, were also pioneers in urban planning. Athens, the capital of ancient Greece, is a notable example. The city implemented a water supply system known as the Enneacrounos, a series of nine fountains strategically located across the city. These fountains provided a centralized and accessible source of clean water for the citizens (Konstantinou et al., 2016). This ingenious water distribution system was a testament to the Greeks' recognition of the importance of clean water for public health.

Roman Aqueducts and Public Baths:

The Romans took water management and sanitation to new heights with their extensive aqueduct systems. One of the most famous examples is the Aqua Claudia, an aqueduct that supplied water to Rome from springs in the Anio Valley. This remarkable engineering marvel stretched over 68 miles, delivering fresh water to the heart of the city (Claridge, 1998). Additionally, Romans constructed public baths, such as the Baths of Caracalla, not only as places for hygiene but also as social centers. These baths incorporated sophisticated plumbing systems that included hot and cold water supply, steam rooms, and drainage systems (MacDonald, 1982). The Roman commitment to providing public sanitation facilities reflected an understanding of the interplay between clean water, hygiene, and communal well-being.

Relevance to Modern Urban Planning:

These ancient practices remain relevant today, as modern urban planning emphasizes the importance of clean water and sanitation. The layout and design of ancient cities influenced subsequent civilizations, providing valuable lessons for contemporary urban planners. The utilization of centralized water supply systems, sewage systems, and communal sanitation facilities echoes in modern water infrastructure projects and public health initiatives.

In summary, exploring the water and sanitation practices of ancient civilizations not only provides historical insights but also offers valuable lessons for understanding the enduring importance of these principles in contemporary society.

1.4.2  Industrial Revolution:

AS AN EDUCATOR, IT'S fascinating to guide students through the transformative impact of the Industrial Revolution on water and sanitation management. This period of rapid industrialization not only fueled economic growth but also presented unprecedented challenges in providing clean water and effective sanitation to burgeoning urban populations.

Urbanization and Waterborne Diseases:

The Industrial Revolution saw a massive shift of populations from rural areas to cities, driven by employment opportunities in factories. This rapid urbanization, however, strained existing water and sanitation infrastructures. As cities expanded, the demand for water increased exponentially, and inadequate sanitation facilities led to the contamination of water sources. This situation became a breeding ground for waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhoid.

In 1854, London experienced a severe cholera outbreak that was traced back to a contaminated public water pump on Broad Street (Snow, 1855). This incident highlighted the pressing need for improved water and sanitation management as a consequence of industrial urbanization.

Development of Water Treatment and Sewerage Systems:

In response to the public health crises during the Industrial Revolution, advancements in water treatment and sewerage systems became imperative. The construction of sewerage systems, such as Joseph Bazalgette's extensive network in London, played a pivotal role in improving sanitation by channeling waste away from populated areas (Chadwick, 1842). Additionally, the implementation of water treatment processes, like chlorination and filtration, became essential to ensure a safe and clean water supply.

Real-life Example: Chicago's Reversal of the Chicago River:

An exemplary case is the reversal of the Chicago River in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The industrial development of Chicago led to the pollution of Lake Michigan, the city's source of drinking water. To address this, the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal was constructed, reversing the flow of the Chicago River and diverting sewage away from Lake Michigan (Barry, 2004). This innovative engineering project significantly improved water quality and exemplified the evolving strategies in water and sanitation management during the Industrial Revolution.

Relevance to Contemporary Challenges:

Teaching about the evolution of water and sanitation management during the Industrial Revolution provides students with insights into the historical roots of modern urban planning and public health practices. The challenges faced during this period echo in contemporary discussions on sustainable urban development, emphasizing the importance of resilient and inclusive water and sanitation systems.

1.4.3  20th Century:

EXPLORING THE 20TH century's global efforts to enhance water and sanitation management provides a rich context for understanding the evolution of policies, international cooperation, and the recognition of fundamental human rights.

Global Focus and United Nations Declaration:

The 20th century witnessed a paradigm shift in the perception of water and sanitation, with a growing global consciousness about the critical role these basic services play in public health and well-being. A landmark moment occurred in 2010 when the United Nations (UN) explicitly recognized access to clean water and sanitation as a fundamental human right. The UN General Assembly adopted Resolution 64/292, which recognizes the right to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a human right that is essential for the full enjoyment of life and all human rights (United Nations, 2010).

Real-life Example: Millennium Development Goals (MDGs):

An illustrative example of concerted global efforts is the inclusion of water and sanitation targets in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The MDGs, established in 2000, aimed to address various global challenges, including poverty and health. Target 7C specifically addressed improving the proportion of the population with sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. While not all goals were universally achieved, the MDGs significantly contributed to raising awareness and mobilizing resources for water and sanitation initiatives (United Nations Development Programme, 2015).

National Policies and Programs:

Many countries, recognizing the importance of water and sanitation for public health and economic development, implemented policies and programs throughout the 20th century. For example, the Clean Water Act in the United States, enacted in 1972, aimed to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters. This legislation represented a commitment to safeguarding water quality and ensuring access to clean water (United States Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.).

Relevance to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):

The efforts of the 20th century laid the groundwork for ongoing initiatives in the 21st century, notably reflected in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Goal 6 of the SDGs explicitly targets clean water and sanitation for all. This underscores the enduring commitment to ensuring universal access to safe water and sanitation as integral components of global development (United Nations, 2015).

Teaching about the 20th century's global focus on water and sanitation management provides students with insights into the evolution of international norms, the recognition of human rights, and the ongoing challenges and opportunities in achieving universal access to clean water and sanitation.

1.4.4  Present Day:

AS A TEACHER, EXPLORING present-day challenges in water and sanitation management provides an opportunity to engage students in understanding the persisting global disparities in access to basic necessities and the ongoing efforts to address these issues.

Global Water and Sanitation Disparities:

In the contemporary world, the challenges of water and sanitation persist, and these challenges are often more acute in developing countries. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a staggering 2.2 billion people lack access to safe drinking water, and a further 4.2 billion people lack access to proper sanitation facilities (WHO, 2022). This stark reality emphasizes the need for ongoing attention and action to ensure the basic human right to water and sanitation for all.

Real-life Example: Water Scarcity in Cape Town:

Cape Town's water crisis in 2018 serves as a poignant example of present-day challenges. Facing severe drought conditions, Cape Town came close to running out of water, prompting citywide water-saving measures and a focus on alternative water sources (City of Cape Town, 2018). The crisis underscored the vulnerability of even well-developed urban areas to water scarcity and the importance of proactive water management.

International Initiatives: The Water Decade:

To address global water challenges, the United Nations launched the International Decade for Action – Water for Sustainable Development (2018–2028). This initiative aims to mobilize efforts toward achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6, which focuses on ensuring access to water and sanitation for all. It emphasizes the importance of sustainable water management, integrated water resources management, and increased cooperation to address water-related challenges (United Nations, 2018).

COVID-19 Pandemic and Hygiene:

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has further highlighted the critical link between water, sanitation, and public health. Access to clean water for handwashing is a vital preventive measure, yet millions of people around the world lack this basic necessity. The pandemic has underscored the urgency of addressing water and sanitation inequalities as part of a comprehensive public health strategy (United Nations, 2020).

Relevance to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):

Present-day efforts align with the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goal 6, which calls for clean water and sanitation for all. This goal reflects a global commitment to addressing water and sanitation challenges as integral components of sustainable development (United Nations, 2015).

Teaching about present-day water and sanitation challenges enables students to connect historical and global perspectives, fostering an understanding of the ongoing efforts to tackle these critical issues.

In summary, water and sanitation management has been a significant concern throughout human history. While significant progress has been made, there is still much work to be done to ensure that everyone has access to clean water and proper sanitation facilities.

2  Current challenges and issues in water and sanitation management

Despite significant progress in improving water and sanitation management, there are still several challenges and issues that need to be addressed:

2.1  Water Scarcity:

TEACHING ABOUT WATER scarcity offers a valuable opportunity to engage students in understanding the multifaceted challenges posed by the increasing demand for water resources and the various factors contributing to this critical issue.

2.1.1  Global Water Scarcity Challenges:

IN THE PRESENT DAY, numerous regions across the globe are grappling with water scarcity, a complex issue influenced by climate change, rapid population growth, and inadequate management of water resources. Climate change has altered precipitation patterns, leading to more frequent and severe droughts in some areas, exacerbating water scarcity challenges. Additionally, the global population's exponential growth intensifies the demand for water, placing additional stress on available resources (Wheeler & von Braun, 2013).

2.1.2  Water Scarcity in India:

INDIA, WITH ITS VAST and diverse population, provides a pertinent real-life example of water scarcity challenges. The country faces issues such as over-extraction of groundwater, contamination of water sources, and inadequate infrastructure for water distribution. In regions like Chennai, residents have experienced acute water shortages, leading to reliance on water tankers for their daily needs (Dutta, 2019). This example illustrates how a combination of population pressure and poor water resource management can contribute to severe water scarcity.

2.1.3  Impact on Drinking, Sanitation, and Irrigation:

WATER SCARCITY HAS profound implications for various essential uses, including drinking, sanitation, and irrigation. In areas where clean water is scarce, access to safe drinking water becomes a significant concern. The lack of proper sanitation facilities further compounds health risks. Moreover, agricultural activities, dependent on irrigation, are severely affected, impacting food production and food security (United Nations, 2018).

2.1.4  International Response and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):

THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY recognizes the severity of water scarcity and has integrated it into the Sustainable Development Goals. Goal 6 specifically addresses clean water and sanitation, aiming to ensure the availability and sustainable management of water for all (United Nations, 2015). Initiatives such as the United Nations' Water Action Decade (2018–2028) emphasize the urgent need for global cooperation in addressing water scarcity and promoting sustainable water management (United Nations, 2018).

Teaching about water scarcity not only fosters an understanding of the challenges faced by various regions but also encourages critical thinking about sustainable solutions and the importance of responsible water resource management.

2.2  Poor Sanitation:

LEARNING ABOUT POOR sanitation offers an opportunity to emphasize the profound impact inadequate sanitation has on public health and the critical need for improved sanitation infrastructure globally.

2.2.1  Global Lack of Sanitation Facilities:

A STAGGERING STATISTIC underscores the severity of the issue—over 4 billion people worldwide lack access to proper sanitation facilities (United Nations, 2022). This widespread lack of access is a significant public health challenge that can have far-reaching consequences for communities, particularly in low-income and developing regions.

2.2.2  Waterborne Diseases and Poor Sanitation:

ONE OF THE IMMEDIATE consequences of poor sanitation is the increased risk of waterborne diseases. Without proper sanitation facilities, human waste can contaminate water sources, leading to the spread of diseases such as cholera and diarrhea. Cholera, for example, is highly sensitive to the quality of water and sanitation, and outbreaks are closely linked to inadequate sanitation practices (Ali et al., 2012).

2.2.3  Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa:

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA serves as a poignant example of the challenges associated with poor sanitation. In many regions, a lack of infrastructure for proper waste disposal and treatment contributes to the contamination of water sources. This, in turn, leads to a higher incidence of waterborne diseases. Efforts to improve sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa often involve community-based initiatives, emphasizing the importance of local engagement and sustainable solutions (World Bank, 2020).

2.2.4  Impact on Public Health and Well-being:

BEYOND THE IMMEDIATE health risks, poor sanitation also has broader implications for public health and well-being. It can contribute to the cycle of poverty by affecting productivity, as individuals—particularly women and children—spend significant time on water-related tasks and may be absent from work or school due to waterborne illnesses (World Health Organization, 2019).

2.2.5  International Efforts and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):

THE GLOBAL COMMUNITY recognizes the urgency of addressing poor sanitation, reflected in Goal 6 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which aims to ensure access to clean water and sanitation for all (United Nations, 2015). International efforts include initiatives to improve sanitation infrastructure, promote hygiene education, and engage local communities in sustainable sanitation practices.

Teaching about poor sanitation provides students with insights into the interconnected challenges of public health, water quality, and social well-being, fostering a sense of responsibility and awareness of the need for global initiatives to address this critical issue.

2.3  Aging Infrastructure:

TEACHING ABOUT AGING infrastructure in developed countries provides an opportunity to explore the challenges posed by deteriorating water and sanitation systems, emphasizing the importance of infrastructure maintenance and renewal for sustainable water management.

2.3.1  Aging Water and Sanitation Infrastructure:

IN SEVERAL DEVELOPED countries, the water and sanitation infrastructure, once robust, is now aging and in need of repair and replacement. Many of these systems were built decades ago, and their deterioration over time poses significant challenges (American Society of Civil Engineers, 2021).

2.3.2  Consequences of Aging Infrastructure:

THE CONSEQUENCES OF aging infrastructure are manifold. Water loss due to leaks in aging pipes is a common issue, leading to inefficient water distribution systems. This not only results in wasted water but also places additional stress on water sources. Moreover, deteriorating infrastructure can compromise water quality, increasing the risk of contaminants entering the supply chain (Water Research Foundation, 2021).

2.3.3  Real-life Example: Aging Water Pipes in the United States: