Merchant Marine Officers' Handbook

By William A MacEwen

This handbook, first issued in 1942, is designed to be used as a textbook or a study guide for the “hawsepiper.” The twenty-five chapters contain information on electronics, celestial navigation, rules of the road, engineering, etc.,—that will be helpful to the third mate, experienced mariner, or student preparing for a licensing examination.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Open Road Integrated Media
• Release date: Jun 30, 2009
• ISBN: 9781507300701

Book preview

CHAPTER 1

The Everyday Labors of a Ship’s Officer

CAPTAIN WILLIAM F. SCHILL

TEXTBOOKS on seamanship are absolutely necessary to pass an examination, but they do not detail the everyday duties of an officer on a ship. Although many things are perhaps well known to the officer, he does not take the initiative to do them until he is told. After a while a captain will come to the conclusion that the officer is careless or does not know his job while it may be only that he lacks self-confidence. Seeing these common things in print may give him that confidence, and start him along the right lines.

Let us assume you have just secured your first berth as third mate, on a ship that is to sail the following day. Get your gear together, say your good-byes, and proceed to your ship ready to leave without any further business ashore. Those officers on board have probably had little or no time ashore, and you should be prepared to take over your duties immediately. When you get aboard introduce yourself to the officer on watch, who will show you to the captain. Present your letter of introduction to him, and make it brief; life stories should be avoided.

After you have presented yourself to the master, find the officer you are relieving. On a well-run ship, he will be waiting for you and prepared to make a businesslike turnover to you. Ask him to show you around. Discuss with him the areas of the third mate’s responsibilities and inspect them promptly, preferably with him. He is an invaluable resource to you in learning the ship and your new job, so use him as much as you can.

Make careful note of the bridge and the equipment and where things are located. Don’t wait until you have a breakdown to find the switch for the breakdown lights. If the radar or automatic radar plotting aid (ARPA) are unfamiliar models, get some instruction or read the operating instruction manual promptly.

If your ship is a tanker, you will be expected to take charge of a cargo watch before very long, so you had better start a process of learning the cargo and ballast systems from top to bottom, and that includes the inert gas system (IGS) and crude oil wash (COW).

In the course of the tour you should acquire a fairly good general knowledge of the ship and what is going on. Don’t be afraid to ask questions; now is the time, rather than when something is wanted in a hurry and you have to call the mate out of his bunk to find out where it is.

Your particular care will be, in most ships, the life saving and fire equipment, some or all of the boats, the signaling apparatus and flags. Here is a good time to outline such flag etiquette as will suffice to get you off to a proper start. Flags are not the most important thing for you, but they can cause you a great deal of embarrassment.

In the first place, always check to see that the sailor or cadet you send to put them up does so properly. If your ship comes into port with an ensign at the gaff and another on the staff aft, upside down, the repercussions will be considerable. This has happened.

Never fly tom flags, especially the ensign; it may be faded and old, but never allow it to be frayed. Always haul down and hoist the ensign slowly, without jerks. Never send it aloft to be broken out. Hoist colors at 8 A.M. and lower them at sunset. If it is not possible to handle all flags together, hoist the ensign first in the morning and haul down the others before it at sunset. Before colors in the morning and after colors at sunset, the ensign and distinguishing flags should be shown when entering port, and should be hauled down immediately on coming to anchor. On entering a foreign port and while there, have the flag of that country at the foremast; some countries impose a fine if this courtesy is omitted. On Memorial Day and on occasions of national mourning the ensign only should be half-masted. Flags should be mastheaded before half-masting them, and should be mastheaded before hauling them down. Saluting with the ensign at half-mast should be done by mastheading first.

In dipping to men-of-war, haul the ensign down two-thirds if at the gaff, or take it to the rail if at the flag staff. The ensign should be hauled down in plenty of time so that the intention to dip may be observed by the vessel saluted and a reply made while the vessels are still nearly abreast.

The jack is hoisted only at anchor or alongside, and the jack and the blue peter should be hauled down as soon as the vessel gets underway. Have your call letters bent together and ready if called for, and don’t forget the quarantine flag if you must stop at quarantine.

Keep your mind refreshed on code flags and the meaning of single flag hoists, as well as maintaining proficiency in blinker. Your proficiency in this respect at the present time will be of more use to the captain than a perfect cartwheel of star position lines out at sea.

Find out where the fire alarm is on the pier, and the shore connection for the fire line. If there is a night mate, see that he knows these things, the location and operation of the fire-fighting equipment, as well as the general layout of the ship.

Give the engineers notice to get underway, usually not less than 30 minutes, and proceed to test the gear. Of the bridge equipment, the electronic equipment is the most likely to fail, so it is a good idea to start with the radars, ARPA, and VHF so that if any of them are not working correctly, repairs can be started. Test the rudder action using both bridge control systems and steering pumps, internal communications, and telegraph and whistle. Compare time with the engine room. Be sure the gyro repeaters are aligned with the master compass. Look up and record the tide and current condition before your departure. Be sure your tests are properly logged. The second mate looks after the gyrocompass, but it will do you no harm to see that he does and that the repeaters and course recorder are checked. Check the latter’s time with the ship’s time; for this and mechanical aid, if properly installed, maintained, and operated, has been shown to be so reliable that its mute evidence is apt to be given more weight than oral testimony in a court of law. Always bear in mind that every official action of yours will have to undergo the most searching probe if through some accident you land in the hands of the legal inquisition.

If loading is complete, get the draft and at the same time look at the lines and any other connections with the shore to see if the engineers can turn the engines over. Before you notify them look yourself to see that there are no logs or floats that might foul the propeller, and stand by to let them know if they must stop at any time.

See that the engine room clock shows the same time as that on the bridge, so the bell books will correspond. Engine room clocks are often very erratic, but if something occurs where both bell books are called for, don’t try to make them jibe afterwards. You will find that the inspectors can dig out such tinkering, which won’t help the ship’s case, not to mention your own standing.

The rudder, tiller, rudder angle indicator, and midship spoke on the wheel should all be aligned. Naturally, the engineer should be in the steering-engine room at the time the gear is tried, and you should verify this with him. The steering-engine room should always be kept locked in port and the keys kept by an officer, not hanging out for anyone to use.

There are several other things to see to which the captain should not have to point out to you. Show you are on the job and look to them before being told. See that the binoculars are clear, that the bridge rail has been wiped off, and that the signal searchlight works. Have a look at the charts, which the second mate should have put out, and look over the side to make sure the side ports have been secured. Let the mate know if they aren’t. Don’t wait until the captain asks you where the quartermaster is. Know beforehand who has the wheel, and make sure he is on the job.

Now some points about the radars. See that the heading flasher is aligned. If the sweep is not centered, determine the effect on bearings by comparing visual with radar. You will have learned, of course, from talking to the man you relieved if there are any blind spots and where they are. You also know from him the mode the captain wants to use—hopefully north up stabilized for plotting accuracy. Be sure the grease pencils and straightedges are at hand and ready for use on the reflection plotter. Having taken the time to resharpen your rapid plotting skills, when the captain asks you for the course and speed of a target, you will be able to give them to him quickly and accurately. It’s one way to show him that you know your business.

When you are docking or undocking, watch the captain or pilot, the quartermaster, and the forecastle head. Don’t be posturing or adjusting your cap for the benefit of some passenger. With winches making a racket, etc., the pilot may raise his hand to stop the engine or the helmsman put the wheel the wrong way while you are occupied making a public ass of yourself.

In narrow waters watch the helmsman at all times when altering the course, and see that the wheelhouse windows are open so that he can hear. Be sure he repeats each order.

It is up to the officer of the watch to take an intelligent interest in the navigation, even though a pilot is aboard, and he should report lights or anything unusual to the pilot. If the ship is being conned by the pilot and the captain leaves the bridge, don’t hesitate to call him if the situation warrants it. If the visibility changes or traffic increases, for example, or if you think the pilot is cutting comers, going too fast, or not staying where he should, inform the captain. Also, watch the pilot for signs of fatigue or any other conditions that might affect his performance. Remember the pilot is only a servant of the vessel. If he errs, it will be the Old Man and probably you who are left holding the bag.

Find out, by day as well as by night, if the master wants a lookout on the forecastle head, and for how long, when leaving or entering a port. If there is any sort of an accident the courts will want to know why he was not there. You don’t need to point it out to the Old Man, but remember that a lookout is a lookout and should have no other duties at the time. The courts have held time after time that the chief officer or carpenter, when they have other duties to perform or consider, do not qualify as lookouts.

Of course, you know enough to have the pilot ladder, boat rope, and a heaving line ready for the pilot. In addition, you should provide a bucket in case there is something to go ashore that he cannot get in his bag or pocket. Always ask the pilot on which side he wants the ladder, as the side he wishes to use may be the weather side at the moment. Watch when the ladder is being put over to see that some part of it is fast to the ship; it may dip into the sea and be pulled out of the men’s hands. Of course they will be very indignant that you should think such a thing could happen, but if it does you’ll get the blame. See that it is not made fast to the rail, which is more often than not a painted piece of old pipe, with very little of it landed in the stanchions. An A.B. should look after this job and make the ladder fast, as some ordinaries have very unusual knots of their own. Even if the pilot is a young man he should not be expected to put on a monkey act in heavy winter clothes on an icy ladder, so try to keep the ladder from getting wet in freezing weather.

Have the boat rope taken well forward and the other end made fast just forward of where the ladder is, with slack enough in the bight to be easily caught and all ready to let go into the boat if necessary.

Be sure ahead of time that the cluster light will burn and that the cable is long enough to lower the light a few feet over the ship’s side so it will not dazzle the eyes of those who are working the ship.

There should be a short stepladder for the pilot as he comes over the bulwarks, or the Jacob’s ladder should be next to a rail that unships; be sure ahead of time that it does unship.

When a pilot is boarding on or off, an officer should escort him. At night the officer should have a flashlight with him. The men can look after the pilot’s bag and the boat rope and ladder. When he is leaving, be sure to tell the quartermaster to take his bag down when the ship slows down. Don’t expect the quartermaster to think of it without being told.

Another job you will need to watch is painting. Don’t just say That’s the chief mate’s job, and let the men continue painting the rail where the ladder will be, or the gangways, when you know they’ll be used before the paint is dry. Show you have a little gumption and stop them; also let the mate know. If he wants to carry on there it’s his funeral, but you will have done the right thing.

If the men on the other watch have the pilot ladder and gear ready when you come on deck, send a man along to verify it. Then you won’t have to sing that old refrain, The other watch did it, if something is missing.

In congested waters or during low visibility, the master may augment the watch and call for a second deck officer in the wheelhouse. This works best when there is a clear division of work, for example, one officer acting as radar lookout and the other acting as watch officer, that is, handling communications, supervising the helmsman and lookout, handling the telegraph, and logging. If the Old Man splits the work, do your part of it and don’t try to do it all. Some ships’ bridges look like a game of musical chairs which adds to the confusion and eventually leads to mistakes. If you find yourself acting as radar lookout, you have a full-time job doing just that. Report what you see and the information you get from the screen, and remember that as lookout, you are not only obligated to report, but to get acknowledgments of what you report.

When you take your first watch alone on the bridge the Rules of the Road will take on a new meaning. The conscientious man will have a feeling of great responsibility resting upon him. A thorough knowledge of the Rules of the Road was necessary to pass your licensing exam, but you cannot fully appreciate them until you see their operation at sea. When you are on the bridge with the pilot, master, or other watch officer, observe how they act in accordance with the rules. The importance of knowing exactly what is required by the rules lies in the fact that the violation of any rule, however slight, is held by the courts to be a presumption of fault, unless it can be proved that the violation could not have caused, or in any way contributed to, the collision. When a collision follows a violation, this is almost impossible to do. First and last remember Rule 1, that the rules apply to all vessels alike, and that one is entitled to rely on the assumption that they will be obeyed. A disregard of any rule on the basis of convenience, courtesy, good nature, or disbelief in its efficacy places the navigator under a burden of proof that is almost impossible for him to carry.

Again, not only must the rules be obeyed, but the action prescribed by them must be taken in ample time to carry out their purpose. Give plenty of room, and when you give way, do it as soon as possible; don’t hang on, keeping the other fellow guessing. Give way so that there is not a shadow of doubt as to what you are doing. Of course, when you do alter course it is the law to blow the necessary signal, and, if the other vessel can be seen, it is never wrong to do so, although many officers forget or do not like to use the whistle.

Another principle of the rules usually overlooked by the mariner in his seagoing practice of the rules is that to avoid liability he must know not only what the rules applicable to a given situation provide, but what the federal courts have interpreted them to mean.

Know when you pass from waters covered by the Inland Rules to those covered by International Rules, or vice versa. There are important differences extending to sound signals as well as running lights. To illustrate, the use of a single blast of the whistle by a stand-on vessel holding her course and speed in a crossing situation is proper in inland waters, but might make the vessel solely liable for a collision that followed the use of the same signal on the high seas, where one short blast indicates a change of course to the right.

Safety lies in keeping awake every moment of the time, with the Rules of the Road as well as the maneuvering characteristics of your own vessel and those of other vessels constantly in mind. In two minutes a vessel traveling at 16 knots will cover over half a mile, while two vessels approaching each other on a bow bearing will draw together by a mile.

A green light a very little on the starboard bow brings a most serious risk of collision, as one vessel may consider that the situation is a case of meeting while the other considers it one of crossing. This of course is where the bridge-to-bridge VHF radio can be used to clear up any doubts and ensure a safe passage. Always be sure the VHF is activated and the volume up when the vessel is near traffic or when the radio is required by traffic control systems.

On rivers and in narrow channels ships must pass close to each other, but in open waters all craft should be given a wide berth. A small change of course made promptly is safer than a much greater change made after the ships are close aboard. No precaution is too great to prevent accident and loss of life—and, incidentally, to keep your license. You have nothing to gain by going close to another ship.

There should be no doubt about what to do when you see fog setting in or the visibility deteriorating because of snow or rain, whether your ship is actually in it or not. Call the master. Put the engines on standby and slow to maneuvering speed. Slow further or stop if the situation warrants. Remember, radar information does not permit you to go at an immoderate speed. The courts have said that radar information may well require you to go slower than a vessel without it. The captain can always resume speed if he wishes. Post your lookout and start the whistle. Log your actions. Be sure the radars are tuned properly and the collision avoidance system (CAS) has acquired the critical targets. The first thing the Old Man will want to know is what traffic is near and closing. So be ready with courses, speeds, and CPAs of the critical targets. It’s a good idea to keep a manual plot of as many targets as you can handle both for practice and to be ready for the eventual failure of the ARPA. Do this in clear weather and you will have no difficulty when fog sets in.

If you adjust the radar to a lower range scale to better track a close target, be sure to switch back to longer ranges frequently. Don’t be surprised by the appearance on your 4-mile screen of a high-speed closing target that you could have known all about if you had only gone out to 20 miles now and then. If the captain prefers to stay on the mike in low visibility for a tighter course and better plotting, be prepared nonetheless to go to hand steering the moment he orders it.

Be ready for the unexpected maneuvers of others such as the ship you are meeting on your starboard bow. Though opening nicely, he may decide to make a port-to-port passing without a word on the VHF. The digitized picture on the CAS that tells you all is well may be too reassuring. It is only a dumb computer giving you information based on past events, and it can’t predict the action of the other mariner who suddenly changes his mind and his course. As the mate on watch you can assess the changing intentions of the master or mate of the other ship better than any electronic device.

If you want to gain the master’s confidence, show him that you will not hesitate to call him when you should. Nothing will destroy his confidence in you faster than his finding you in trouble without his knowing of a change in conditions about which he should have been informed. First, you should always know where he is. If he leaves his quarters to take a turn through the machinery spaces, he should let you know. In the unhappy event you serve with a captain who neglects to tell his watch officers where he can be found, you may need to develop your own intelligence system or simply learn his routines. Know where he is! Valuable time can be lost hunting for him when he is needed.

Call him in plenty of time. If it’s a traffic situation, he not only needs time to get to the bridge but he also needs time to appraise the situation. At night he needs additional time to adapt his eyes. So think ahead and call him early. Call him any time you are in doubt. If you find yourself wondering whether or not to call him, that’s the clue—call him! Call him if there is an irregularity in the navigation; e.g., if you fail to make a landfall or pick up a light on time, or the fathometer differs from the charted soundings. An unusual compass error, an unanticipated speed change, an unusual set, are all reasons to call him. Call him any time traffic becomes a potential threat or is unusual. Examples are an unusual concentration of traffic, a burdened vessel on a constant bearing with no bridge-to-bridge contact and 10 minutes from CPA, or a first sighting by radar of a target inside 5 miles on a steady bearing. Call him if you have to invoke Rule 2(b).

Call him if you hear or see a distress call or signal, or if you hear any unusual radio traffic. Call him if there is an unexpected change in weather or sea state, especially a change that may require you to reduce speed, and of course call him if there is any deterioration in the visibility. Call him if there is any breakdown or irregularity of the major machinery. Even if it is momentary and of no apparent threat to the vessel, an interruption of main propulsion or steering even if quickly regained is a significant event and requires the master’s immediate knowledge.

If, in spite of your good intentions, you find yourself in and apparently out of a bad situation, you are well advised to face up to the unpleasant task of telling the captain immediately. Perhaps the innocuous-looking small craft you mistook for a fishing vessel passing harmlessly ahead of you turned out much to your dismay to be a geophysical survey vessel towing a mile-long underwater array. He has been frantically calling you for the last 30 minutes, but you had the volume down and didn’t hear him.

Don’t start wishful thinking and tell yourself that you probably cleared his gear. Instead, tell the Old Man now. The other guy is probably already on the air complaining to his owners. It is better to face up to it now than after the marine superintendent has raked the Old Man over the coals for the damage claim and the sloppy watchkeeping which he knew nothing about. The captain may forgive you the first error but he is unlikely to forgive your covering up and letting him get blindsided.

With all the sophisticated electronic equipment aboard ship the RDF is seldom used and tends to be neglected. Don’t let it be. For that matter any equipment aboard should work and you should know how to use it. Check your RDF against visual bearings whenever you have the opportunity and log the results. When you need the RDF its use will be critical. That is no time to discover that the sense antenna has been carried away or to wonder if a year-old calibration chart is still good.

Relieving the watch is serious business and should be done in a professional manner. Allow yourself plenty of time before 8 bells to let your eyes adapt to night vision. Read and sign the night orders. You should always verify the course laid off by the master, although it is not recommended you make a great show of doing so. Study the radar and CAS. Be sure you understand the steaming situation and the traffic movements. Look over the log and check the weather. Question the officer you are relieving. Find out if there is anything about the cargo or ballast you should know. Are any of the crew working on deck? What are they doing and where? When you are satisfied, relieve the watch by repeating the course and saying clearly, I relieve you. Always log the actual time you relieve or are relieved. The instant you relieve, you are in charge until you yourself are properly relieved. If a sudden emergency develops, there can be no doubt who is in charge. If the ship is being maneuvered, don’t relieve until the maneuver is completed. Don’t relieve if there are any irregularities. Instead, call the master. Never leave the bridge unless properly relieved and never turn the watch over to an officer who is physically incapable of standing it or who does not understand the steaming situation. Again, call the master. Some junior officers become uncertain of their responsibility when the master comes on the bridge. There should be no doubt that you are in charge until he indicates he is taking her, usually by saying I’ll take her or I have the conn. Log the time he takes the conn and when he turns it back to you.

When on the bridge with the master never hesitate to report a light or the loom of one or a noise in a fog, as it is possible that he has not seen or heard it. Don’t expect to be congratulated on your alertness when you do; however, even the worst grouch prefers to have an officer reporting all he sees to having one who sees and hears, but who is too indifferent to say anything until it is perhaps too late.

Here it might be pointed out that it may not be altogether a misfortune to have to start out with the worst grouch in the company. Going to sea, particularly on your first few trips, will be no bed of roses, and the kind of skipper mentioned will probably seem altogether unreasonable and make a row out of all proportion to your mistake or oversight; but he probably feels it is the way he learned. You will probably find that his bark is worse than his bite if you don’t always come back with an alibi or act surly or superior. Whatever you do, don’t sit down and write the office that you consider life too short to sail with the likes of him. They aren’t going to take him off because he doesn’t suit you. As a matter of fact, the office probably knows better than you do how hard he is to get along with, and will think better of you if you can stick it out.

During your night watch, keep a good lookout and don’t spend half the time gazing over the chart in a trance. It is also unwise to try to look busy suddenly when the captain appears on the bridge; this will not fool the experienced master. Spending your watch talking with the A.B. on duty is also an excellent way to cause yourself problems. Although the captain may only drop a hint that you stop, he will certainly know that you are not keeping a good watch, and will not appreciate the lack of discipline you would be encouraging.

See that the men relieve each other promptly, stay alert, repeat the course to you, and answer properly when spoken to or given an order. Some officers do not know how to speak to the men, and seem half-frightened to start them on a job. Don’t start with, I say, George, don’t you think you had better, etc. Call the man by his proper name and give a direct order so he will see you know what you want done and can show him, if necessary, how to do it. If a man is too long starting a job, such as first getting a bucket of water and then going to the same place for soap, slowing up until coffee time or 8 bells, don’t wait until the trip is half over to correct him—do it at once and don’t apologize for doing so. There is no need to bully or nag, but you should let him know that you are there to see that the work is done. Keeping men up to the mark saves a lot of trouble in the long run. Avoid foul language, as it only shows ignorance or a transparent attempt to be tough. Respect for others creates in them a respect for you, but calling a man a bad name gives him a perfect right to come back at you with the same.

Don’t wait until you are shipping water forward to pull the lookout back to the bridge. The same goes for any of the crew on deck. If the weather is making up, get them off the deck before someone gets hurt. Have your watch close and dog the weather doors and hang warning signs on them so some unsuspecting crew member doesn’t go barging out and get hurt by a boarding sea. While we are talking about looking after the crew, don’t forget to hang a warning sign on the radars when you secure them so the men can go aloft. If it looks as though you are going to start taking green water over the bow or start pounding, reduce speed and call the master. He can go ahead again if he wishes but you have done the right thing by reducing speed before the damage is done.

Fix the ship’s position frequently and by more than one method. Check electronic fixes with visual bearings whenever you can. Don’t forget to keep up your celestial navigation skills. You can count on it; the day will come when your sextant is the only thing that’s working. Get an azimuth every watch and log the results. Check your gyro against the magnetic frequently and the repeaters against the master. This includes the course recorder for course, time, and quadrant. Be sure of the characteristics of a light. It would not do to try to pass inside Bamegat Fl W 10 sec. when you intend to pass inside Bamegat Light Vessel Occ W 10 sec.

In general, when you have the watch, take charge. When something needs doing, do it. Don’t wait to be told. Check on everything and assume nothing. Your success or failure will depend in large measure on how well you manage the multitude of details involved.

Now a word regarding drills. On a well-run ship the drills are never perfunctory but instead are carefully planned and carried out to ensure the greatest training benefit to all hands. Be prepared to do your part. If you are in charge of an emergency squad, see that your people are mustered, carry their assigned tools, and know how to use them. Challenge them with questions as to their assignments. If the master has staged an emergency problem for the drill, be sure you and your people pitch in and make it as realistic as possible. For abandon-ship be sure that each person in your boat crew knows his assignment and is capable of performing it. If yours is a motor lifeboat, rotate the job of starting the motor among all members of your boat crew. Whoever ends µp in the boat should be able to run it. If the mate tells you to lecture the ship’s company on, for example, the oxygen breathing apparatus after fire and boat drill, do your homework and give a professional presentation.

As soon as relieved you should write up the log before going below. The original log book entries (without erasures) are of great value when points of law are being decided with respect to the ship on a voyage. As mentioned before, be sure your log shows the actual time of the events logged. For example, show the actual time you relieve and were relieved. Enter everything significant to the work of the vessel and the weather. Make your log entries concise, legible, and factual. Conjecture and opinion have no place in a ship’s log. If an error is discovered, both the entry that is in error and the corrected entry must be preserved and initialed by the person responsible for the entry. The following items should be logged:

1. Aids to navigation sighted and passed with bearings and distances

2. Fixes and the method used

3. Courses steered and speeds

4. The names of the lookouts

5. Any unusual events, a power interruption, a personnel injury, a distress call

6. The names of pilots, the times they board on and off, and the times they assume the conn and give it up

7. Any changes in the watch condition, for example, the posting of an additional lookout or the addition of a radar watch officer

Be sensitive to log entries that could protect your vessel from accusations, fines, or litigation. For example, if you sight an oil slick, log it. If the slick damages a beach, your log entry may help clear your ship of any responsibility for having caused it. There are many log entries required by law such as drills held, boats in the water, testing of gear before sailing, etc. Be sure these are correct as to form and substance.

Many officers spend much time perfecting themselves in deep-sea navigation where the ship is not endangered. They neglect to acquaint themselves with tidal and current conditions when coming into pilot waters and coming into port because the captain or pilot will have the conn. This is a mistake because entering port is also a demanding time for the watch officer.

Give the engineers ample notice of the end of the sea passage. Thirty minutes is probably adequate for an attended plant but considerably more notice will be needed if the plant is unattended at sea. The echo sounder should be started as soon as you are on soundings. Radars should be on and tuned. Test the gear and log it. Get power on the deck machinery and have your watch clear the anchors. If your deck machinery is steam, it can take some time to get steam on deck and warm up the machinery. Be sure you know when the mate wants the gang called.

Fix your position frequently throughout the port passage. Even though the master or a pilot is conning, be sure the ship is clear of hazards. The use of danger bearings and techniques such as parallel indexing on the radar can be a big help to you in staying on top of everything. If at any time you believe the ship is standing into danger, speak up and warn the person who has the conn. Neither the master nor a pilot, in spite of having considerable skill and experience, is infallible.

When the pilot boards, the master will, in all likelihood, question him closely about his plan for transiting and docking. The master will give the pilot the important information he needs to know about the ship before giving him the conn. Listen closely to this exchange and sort out the details. If the pilot alters his plan, be sure the master knows it. For example, if the pilot told the master two tugs would assist and only one shows up, ask the question, Where is the second tug? If the master and the pilot agree to go ahead with the single tug, you at least have aired the question. Many a docking has ended in damage because expediency superseded good judgment. The point is: Pay attention and be part of what is happening; don’t relax because someone else has the conn.

If you are going to anchor, find out which anchor the pilot wants to use and probable amount of chain, and let the mate know. Of course, you have called out the carpenter and mate in plenty of time. Test the communication system with the mate. Whether it’s a sound-powered phone, VHF, or whatever, you should be sure it’s working.

Take bearings as soon as anchored, turn out running lights, turn on deck lights, and be sure the anchor lights are burning. Check your anchor bearings frequently.

If the weather makes up and the anchor starts to take a heavy strain, be ready to veer chain and put the engines on standby. Call the captain. He may wish to drop the other anchor.

At the first sign of fog, start the bell and watch your radar for traffic. Both by day and by night keep a sharp lookout while at anchor. If another ship is being carried across your bow, you may be able to get clear by slacking cable. Don’t just stand by and watch until she hits.

When you are waiting for the doctor to give pratique, look for his boat so you can have all hands mustered and lined up for inspection as soon as he boards. There should be an officer at the gangway to meet him and one to see him over the side when he leaves. If you are doping off and don’t see the yellow flag until just as the doctor is coming alongside, he may see you are not ready and go to the next ship. Then they get the customs first, and your ship gets further behind all along the line.

If you are to heave up on the pilot’s orders, always let the captain know. Some pilots are apt to be very officious and quite willing to take a chance with the ship in order to get ashore as soon as possible. Perhaps the skipper would not have allowed the anchor to be started if he had been informed in the first place, but since it is nearly up before he knows about it, he takes the pilot’s unsound advice. If the ship is unfortunate enough to get ashore or run into another ship, the pilot may be a bit late getting ashore but that is the end of it more or less, for him. The ship on the other hand will have all sorts of trouble and incur expense. There will be reports to make out and lawyers to see. You’ll all be in the hands of the admiralty courts for a long time if it’s a dry-docking case. All because the pilot had a date, and you didn’t notify the captain in time to stop him.

When you get the order to heave up, put the engine on standby while the master is being called and call down for water on deck and power on the anchor windlass. The hose should have been ready before. When the officer who is going to heave up arrives on the bridge, the windlass can be started right away. This might save 10 minutes, which in a lifting fog can make the difference between getting into port or having to wait another 12 hours or more.

Don’t let the cadet or quartermaster start to clear up the bridge just as you are making a landing. The extra minute or so gained in getting below is dear to every sailor’s heart, but he will be in everyone’s way, and the skipper will probably send him off and give you a few words besides. When you do finally leave the bridge, be sure the binoculars and azimuth circles are put away and everything is locked up.

When the anchor is let go, the mate leaning over the side watching the chain run out is not helping anything. He should make sure it’s not dropping into a barge and then look towards the bridge to see if they want to hold on or let the other go. On the forecastle head you can estimate the distance from the pier or ship ahead better than those on the bridge, so don’t wait until the ship has hit before telling them to go astern. You might have to let go on your own initiative, which you should not hesitate to do if you can prevent the stem from hitting the pier or the ship from going ashore. Hold on as soon as the anchor is on the bottom if letting go under these conditions. Otherwise it will be too late to check the ship’s way.

When going alongside, the second mate should give the mate a chance to get the bow in first, then he can heave in parallel with the pier, and if she is bound in too tight forward the mate can slack off. If you stay on the bridge long enough after the engines are rung off and the make-fast order given to see that the ship is actually parallel against the pier, you can save yourself and everyone else a lot of trouble. If you wait until everything is secured, and then find out the ship is not parallel you will then have to stand by fore and aft again to slack off forward and heave in aft. This is practically a routine on some ships, and if the third mate is awake he can prevent it by telling the mate that the second can’t get her in aft. If there is much flare to the bows this situation is more apt to occur, by heaving in too much with a flaring bow the mate can do a lot of needless damage to a crane or warehouse on the pier.

Your next berth will be second mate, so be ready to step into it if there is an unexpected opening. The second mate, as navigating officer, has charge of the chart room. No unauthorized persons should be permitted in this room or on the bridge; the law requires that the bridge be kept free from access by persons not directly connected with the navigation of the vessel.

The idea is to look after things without being told. After telling you once and finding that you are too careless or indifferent to remember, the captain will likely look after things himself, having got sick and tired of reminding second mates. And you’ll be feeling badly treated when you find the captain doesn’t think very highly of you. For instance, be sure to erase the old bearings and positions from a chart at the end of the voyage before the chart is put away. Don’t plan to do it later, because you won’t.

Before leaving the pier the charts should be ready in the top drawer in the order in which they will be used; the harbor chart and first coast chart to be used should be on the table. Look over the Notices to Mariners before leaving port, and post in a conspicuous place any changes in the lights that will be passed on the voyage. Also post the time of high and low water and information regarding the variable currents along the coast. See that the course record or rough log for the last time you made this passage is handy, that the pencils have points, scrap paper is handy, dividers are not slack or bent, and parallel rules are not hidden under the charts in the drawer. Check the chronometer and post the error, and see that all clocks and the course recorder show the same time. These are all small things and take but a few minutes, but many so-called navigating officers never think of them.

The master may send you aft to make fast instead of calling out the second, or he may have the mate on the bridge to get practice in docking the ship and send you forward. He’ll be watching to see if you can manage.

Your chief concern aft is to see that nothing fouls the propeller. Never signal all clear until you see the lines are aboard and, in fact, clear. When you are working on deck look after the safety of the men. It’s so easy for even an experienced seaman to have a momentary lapse and step into the bight of a line. A timely word from you can avert an accident. In fact it’s a good idea to get your gang together just before an operation and review with them the hazards of the job and the precautions. Look over their gear. Be sure they are ready for the operation, for example, that they have gloves for handling wires and hard hats if they are a requirement of the ship.

Look after the mooring lines, which should never be left on warping heads. Always put them on the bitts. Maybe they will carry away before the shaft is bent, but if you call yourself a seaman you should see that they are made fast in the proper place and attended to. At the same time check up on the rat guards. Fines for their absence are a welcome source of revenue to the officials of many ports.

When you are tying up and get an order to slack a line, see that the man at the winch does so 3 or 4 feet at a time, not inches. Don’t let heaving lines be thrown until you are certain they will reach. Usually heaving lines are thrown when there is not a chance of them reaching shore, and then, when you are close enough, everyone is hauling their heaving lines from the water. Remember too that two heaving lines can be bent together as a man walks forward or aft, so that as soon as he has the line ashore he can let go, and with the other line fast to the mooring line the longshoremen can start hauling it ashore. If the midships is to land first on the pier, send a man there with the heaving line.

A new array of problems and concerns arises once the ship is secured in its berth. Cargo, ballast, fuel, stores, personnel changes, repairs, official visitors—all must be handled. The officers and crew not on duty are more than likely down the gangway and into the hinterland before very long. This is an important point if you have the watch. Always know which of the officers and how many of the crew are aboard. It will be important to you in an emergency.

Figure 13-1. International flags and pennants. Courtesy: Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic Center

See that the gangway or accommodation ladder is well secured and adjusted as the deck to dock height changes during your watch. If the step off the end of the gangway onto the deck becomes uncomfortably high, don’t wait to be told to correct it. Most ships have some portable steps stowed away for this purpose, but if not, a stout wooden box may serve. The point is you can’t stand by and permit an unsafe condition to exist. Check the surface of the deck and the dock where the crew steps off the gangway. If it’s slippery, some sand may help to restore safe footing. In icy conditions, a generous application of salt will help to prevent slips and falls. If your owner requires the use of a gangway net, see that it is rigged. It is another of those items so often neglected until someone in authority pointedly reminds you of the omission. Preventing injury to crew and visitors is a high-priority responsibility of the ship’s officer.

Always have one of your deck watch assigned to watch the gangway and to challenge anyone boarding who is not a member of the ship’s company. His purpose is to turn away would-be stowaways and casual visitors. His purpose also is to assist those who have legitimate business to transact with the ship to get to the right person or department. No visitor should be permitted to wander about on his own. This is particularly applicable to representatives of government agencies who board to ensure compliance with regulations. Such persons should be escorted by an officer. If the inspection reveals a deficiency, the officer can see that corrective steps are taken. On the other hand a citation can be averted by the officer who can argue an unwarranted charge. It’s an embarrassing thing to get notice of a citation weeks after the fact and frustrating to try to prove that the citation was made in error. If you have a uniformed guard at the gangway, be sure he knows what is expected of him also. Close and lock the unused compartments and keep control of the keys. You aren’t blessed with a lot of help, but with a little thought and planning you and your watch can substantially enhance security and expedite the flow of persons doing business with the ship.

Air and water pollution should be of concern to you. Even an efficiency haze coming off the stack is too much smoke for most ports today. So be alert to your stack emissions and warn the engineers the instant the smoke becomes excessive. You also must take every precaution to prevent the release of oil or chemicals overboard. In the U.S. you must report a spill immediately. Failure to do so is cause for a personal fine and imprisonment. In addition, prompt action must be taken to mitigate the effects of a spill. You should know the pollution regulations for any port you visit. No rubbish may ever be thrown overboard in port or for that matter anywhere near a coast. Most pollution incidents will result in a substantial fine against the ship. Perhaps as serious is the black eye it gives you, your ship, and your company. Masters and owners are very sensitive to pollution caused by their ships.

Of course the main reason you are in port is to move cargo. On most ships the chief mate, besides being second in command and head of the deck department, is responsible to the master for the cargo. So you are responsible to him for carrying out the orders for cargo handling. The watch officer on a tanker is in direct control of the cargo transfer and on a remote cargo control ship will personally control the cargo movement. This in itself is demanding and requires good communications and direction of the watch on deck to carry out all the other in-port functions. On ships other than tankers there can be any number of persons with varying degrees of expertise seeing that the cargo gets loaded or discharged according to the cargo plan. If anything, this help makes it more difficult for the watch officer to stay in charge. The temptation and the weakness is to leave it all to the loading boss or the skilled pumpman. That is a trap. You must stay on top of it. If something goes wrong, it will be you who is called front and center.

With so much going on, it’s pretty obvious you have got to be on the move. Even on the remote cargo control tanker you must go out, see for yourself, talk to your crew and the stevedores. Ask questions, and see that things are in fact as they should be. Look at the water around the ship. If there is oil on it, it’s either from your ship or from another source. You have to know which. Feel the weather. The wind can freshen rapidly and make it necessary to double up your lines. In some berths it may be necessary to get underway.

Through all this, at sea and in port, on or off watch, make sure you look and act like an officer—like a professional. Your appearance is very important and so is your conduct. Set an example for others. Prepare yourself for the next job, the next step up. Upgrade your license at the first opportunity. Study your owner’s regulations and directives so you know what is expected of you at all times. When you have an idle moment, instead of daydreaming, train yourself to play what if. Imagine an emergency and mentally go through the steps you would take to handle it. When a real emergency happens, you will be ready for it. You won’t get a lot of chances to be a hero so be sure you’re ready and don’t get caught flatfooted.

Being a ship’s officer is a grand profession. No single element of it requires an inordinate amount of skill or knowledge, but all the skills needed to do the job right, when taken together, are enough to challenge the best. When you have mastered them, you have a right to be proud.

Stern of SS Ocean Eagle as photographed from the bridge. The vessel ran aground at the entrance to San Juan, Puerto Rico. It has been said that eternal vigilance is the price of good navigation. (Courtesy U.S. Naval Institute)

CHAPTER 2

Piloting and Radar Navigation

PROFESSOR JAMES M. MALONEY AND PROFESSOR JOHN M. T. KELLY

THE practical art of piloting a vessel through waters where frequent maneuvering is required demands not only a consideration of the techniques of fixing one’s position, but also a knowledge of the area being traversed. Although charts and publications may provide the navigator with considerable information, they don’t tell the whole story. There is no substitute for personal knowledge of the given harbor or inshore area—especially during adverse conditions.

This chapter will review the various methods of fixing a vessel’s position. Because of the development of sophisticated radar equipment, many of the older techniques of determining distance off are rarely used today, but will be discussed and are well worth consideration. Radar and other electronic equipment is neither infallible nor independent of the need for a source of electrical power.

A thorough discussion is also included of the factors influencing the accuracy of the DR plot as well as those affecting both the accuracy and reliability of fixes. Navigation is both an inexact science and a practical skill requiring refined judgment. The competent navigator not only gathers information about the ship’s position, course, and speed made good, but also assesses the accuracy and reliability of the information gathered. In short, he must know what is going on and use some common sense.

PLOTTING AND DEAD RECKONING